The philosophy behind a consolidated approach to livestock disease diagnostics in South AmericaABSTRACT:
This article outlines the philosophy underlying the livestock diagnostic system that has been developed and consolidated over the past six decades and is now used in most veterinary diagnostic laboratories in Uruguay, Brazil, and Argentina. The origins of this approach are complex, having been shaped by historical circumstances such as the post-war period, political transitions, military dictatorships, economic crises, and the contributions of numerous institutions and individuals. The emergence of outstanding veterinary pathologists between the 1950s and 1970s played a decisive role in this process. Several diagnostic laboratories recognized the importance of integrating fieldwork and laboratory practice, making this interaction both a lifestyle and a crucial tool for addressing the health challenges of livestock. As a result, a mixed case-entry system was established, combining active investigation through regular field visits with the passive reception of samples submitted by field veterinarians. In parallel, modern and robust diagnostic methods were progressively incorporated, providing a strong basis for impactful scientific publications and postgraduate research. Diagnostic pathology combines morphological findings from anatomopathological examinations with laboratory methods to improve diagnostic accuracy. This systematic approach fostered the development of a regional identity capable of enduring, and often overcoming, the limitations imposed by restricted investment in basic and applied veterinary sciences. Such resilience was sustained by a multidisciplinary and interinstitutional perspective. Several fundamental principles guided the establishment of veterinary diagnostic laboratories: (1) the training and availability of specialized human resources; (2) adequate infrastructure, vehicles, equipment, and modern diagnostic techniques; (3) long-term and stable funding; (4) research oriented toward solving the real problems faced by livestock producers; (5) the continuous collection and processing of epidemiological data; (6) the constant exchange of diagnostic techniques and information among laboratories; and (7) the active participation of researchers as mentors in graduate programs, alongside the direct involvement of graduate students in diagnostic activities. Over the past decades, this approach has significantly transformed animal health in the region, even during periods when principles such as infrastructure and long-term funding were only partially fulfilled. Adapted to South American conditions, the model has enabled a holistic perspective on human, animal, and environmental health, strengthening the integration of research, teaching, extension, scientific development, and trust in veterinary services in both domestic and international markets. The emerging paradigm is that future generations of pathologists will carry this knowledge forward, because the cows are still in the field!
INDEX TERMS:
Field diagnosis; laboratory diagnosis; livestock diseases; livestock owners
RESUMO:
Este artigo descreve a filosofia por trás do sistema de diagnóstico das doenças dos animais de produção, desenvolvido e consolidado ao longo das últimas seis décadas e atualmente aplicado na maioria dos laboratórios de diagnóstico veterinário no Uruguai, Brasil e Argentina. A origem desse modo de operação é complexa, envolvendo diversos eventos históricos, como o período pós-guerra, mudanças de governo, ditaduras e crises econômicas, além das contribuições de instituições e pessoas. Sem dúvida, o surgimento de patologistas brilhantes entre as décadas de 1950 e 1970 foi decisivo nesse processo. Curiosamente, vários laboratórios de diagnóstico reconheceram a importância de integrar o trabalho de campo à prática laboratorial, transformando essa interação em um estilo de vida e em uma ferramenta crucial para enfrentar os desafios sanitários dos produtores. O resultado foi a criação de um sistema misto de entrada de casos, caracterizado pela investigação ativa por meio de visitas recorrentes ao campo e pela recepção passiva de amostras enviadas por veterinários de campo. Além disso, métodos de diagnóstico modernos e robustos foram aplicados, fornecendo a base para publicações científicas de impacto e teses de pós-graduação. A patologia diagnóstica integra achados morfológicos dos exames anatomopatológicos a métodos laboratoriais complementares que aumentam a precisão diagnóstica. Esse enfoque consolidou uma identidade regional capaz de resistir e superar limitações de investimento em ciência veterinária básica e aplicada, sustentada por uma visão multidisciplinar e interinstitucional. Alguns princípios fundamentais orientaram a fundação dos laboratórios de diagnóstico veterinário: 1) capital humano especializado; 2) infraestrutura, veículos, equipamentos e técnicas diagnósticas modernas; 3) financiamento de longo prazo; 4) pesquisa voltada para a solução dos problemas reais dos produtores; 5) coleta e processamento contínuos de dados epidemiológicos; 6) intercâmbio permanente de técnicas e informações entre laboratórios de diagnóstico; e 7) participação ativa de pesquisadores dos laboratórios como orientadores em programas de pós-graduação, com envolvimento de estudantes de pós-graduação nas atividades diagnósticas. Esse modo de operação desencadeou uma reação catalisadora que transformou a trajetória da saúde animal nas últimas décadas, mesmo quando os princípios 2 e 3 não foram plenamente atendidos. Adaptado às condições da América do Sul, esse modelo permitiu a construção de uma visão holística da saúde humana, animal e ambiental, fortalecendo a integração entre pesquisa, ensino, extensão, desenvolvimento científico e confiança nos serviços veterinários, tanto nos mercados internos quanto internacionais. O novo paradigma é que as futuras gerações de patologistas possam levar esse conhecimento adiante. Porque as vacas continuam no campo!
TERMOS DE INDEXAÇÃO:
Diagnóstico a campo; diagnóstico laboratorial; enfermidades de animais de produção; produtores rurais
RESUMEN
Este artículo describe la filosofía detrás del sistema de diagnóstico en animales de producción que se ha desarrollado y consolidado a lo largo de las últimas seis décadas y que actualmente se utiliza en la mayoría de los laboratorios de diagnóstico veterinario de Uruguay, Brasil y Argentina. Los orígenes de este enfoque son complejos y han sido influenciados por circunstancias históricas como el período de posguerra, las transiciones políticas, las dictaduras militares, las crisis económicas y las contribuciones de numerosas instituciones y personas. La emergencia de destacados patólogos veterinarios entre las décadas de 1950 y 1970 desempeñó un papel decisivo en este proceso. Varios laboratorios de diagnóstico reconocieron la importancia de integrar el trabajo de campo con la práctica de laboratorio, convirtiendo esta interacción tanto en un modo de vida como en una herramienta fundamental para abordar los desafíos sanitarios de la producción ganadera. Como resultado, se estableció un sistema mixto de ingreso de casos, que combinó la investigación activa mediante visitas periódicas al campo con la recepción pasiva de muestras remitidas por veterinarios de campo. En paralelo, se incorporaron progresivamente métodos diagnósticos modernos y robustos, proporcionando una base sólida para publicaciones científicas de impacto y para el desarrollo de la investigación de posgrado. La patología diagnóstica integra los hallazgos morfológicos obtenidos a partir de exámenes anatomopatológicos con métodos de laboratorio, con el fin de mejorar la precisión diagnóstica. Este enfoque sistemático favoreció el desarrollo de una identidad regional capaz de perdurar y, en muchos casos, superar las limitaciones impuestas por la escasez de inversiones en ciencias veterinarias básicas y aplicadas. Dicha resiliencia fue sostenida por una perspectiva multidisciplinaria e interinstitucional. Varios principios fundamentales guiaron la conformación de los laboratorios de diagnóstico veterinario: (1) la formación y disponibilidad de recursos humanos especializados; (2) infraestructura adecuada, vehículos, equipamiento y técnicas diagnósticas modernas; (3) financiamiento estable y de largo plazo; (4) investigación orientada a la resolución de los problemas reales que enfrentan los productores ganaderos; (5) la recolección y el procesamiento continuo de datos epidemiológicos; (6) el intercambio permanente de técnicas diagnósticas e información entre laboratorios; y (7) la participación activa de los investigadores como tutores en programas de posgrado, junto con la integración directa de los estudiantes de posgrado en las actividades diagnósticas. Durante las últimas décadas, este enfoque ha transformado de manera significativa la salud animal en la región, incluso en períodos en los que principios como la infraestructura y el financiamiento a largo plazo solo se cumplieron parcialmente. Adaptado a las condiciones sudamericanas, el modelo ha permitido una visión holística de la salud humana, animal y ambiental, fortaleciendo la integración entre la investigación, la enseñanza, la extensión, el desarrollo científico y la confianza en los servicios veterinarios tanto en los mercados internos como internacionales. El paradigma emergente sostiene que las futuras generaciones de patólogos seguirán proyectando este conocimiento, mientras las vacas continúen en el campo.
TERMINOS DE INDEXACIÓN
Diagnóstico a campo; diagnóstico laboratorial; enfermedades de los animales de producción; productores ganaderos
Introduction
The efficiency of veterinary laboratory diagnostics depends in part on the approach adopted by pathologists when addressing livestock disease challenges. In South American livestock production systems, particularly in cattle, passive sample submission alone is generally insufficient to ensure accurate diagnoses. Retrospective studies have shown that the main cause of inconclusive diagnoses is the submission of autolyzed or inadequate samples by field veterinarians (Lucena et al. 2010). This situation may be related to several factors, including the lack of economic incentives for producers to transport animals or samples to diagnostic laboratories, the limited number of veterinarians who routinely perform autopsies in the field, and the large geographical distances involved.
Many diseases, such as sudden death following exercise caused by toxic plants and botulism, do not present lesions. Therefore, on-site farm visits are essential for obtaining epidemiological data. In response to these limitations, pathologists in Uruguay, Brazil, and Argentina developed a mixed diagnostic system that combines passive receipt of samples with regular field visits. Within this framework, training programs were established to prepare new veterinarians to conduct field investigations with the same scientific rigor applied in laboratory settings, thereby ensuring the generation of reliable diagnostic data and robust scientific publications. The integration of field investigation with laboratory diagnostics ultimately gave rise to a distinctive diagnostic philosophy, specifically adapted to the epidemiological and logistical realities of South American livestock production systems.
The Pioneers Behind the Philosophy in the Diagnosis of Livestock Diseases
The contributions of South American pathologists have long been recognized in veterinary medicine. The newly founded journal Veterinary Pathology (1964) included, among its first editorial board members, only one representative from South America: Dr. Paulo Dacorso Filho (1914-1975), from the “Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro” (UFRRJ) (Cheville 2013). A landmark development in this process was the training of three veterinary students under his mentorship: Dr. Carlos Hubinger Tokarnia (1929-2015, UFRRJ), Dr.h.c. Jürgen Döbereiner (1923-2018, “Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária” - Embrapa), and Dr. Severo Sales de Barros (1932-2022, “Universidade Federal de Santa Maria” - UFSM). The pathologists known as the “Dacorso boys” (Fig. 1), respectfully referring to Tokarnia, Döbereiner, and Barros, directly or indirectly influenced subsequent generations of pathologists in Brazil.
The philosophy behind livestock diagnosis in South America. The mentorship of Tokarnia, Döbereiner, and Barros by Dacorso contributed to significant advancements in understanding livestock diseases, educating future professionals, and applying active field research to address challenges faced by producers. Images of the Tokarnia and Döbereiner were reproduced from the Founders of CBPA website9. The image of Dacorso was reproduced from the UFRRJ website10
Between the 1960s and 1980s, Dr. Carlos Hubinger Tokarnia and Dr.h.c. Jürgen Döbereiner conducted extensive field investigations throughout Brazil, focusing on infectious, toxic, and nutritional diseases affecting cattle (Dutra et al. 2019). Their work greatly expanded the understanding of diseases that impact livestock production in tropical and subtropical environments. During the same period, Dr. Severo Sales de Barros established the foundations of modern veterinary diagnostic pathology at UFSM in southern Brazil. After specializing in pathology at the University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover (TiHo) in Germany, he introduced transmission electron microscopy as a diagnostic and research tool in Brazil. During his training in Germany, Barros was profoundly influenced by Dr.h.c. Paul Cohrs (1897-1977) and Dr.h.c. Leo-Clemens Schulz (1923-2002), whose mentorship played a decisive role in shaping his professional development (Schild et al. 2022). Barros is regarded as the only Latin American disciple of these two distinguished German pathologists. For many years, most of the pathology textbooks used by veterinary students and diagnostic practitioners were written in German (Fig. 2-4), reflecting the strong influence of the German school of veterinary pathology on the formation of South American diagnosticians. In 1975, Dr. Jefferson Andrade dos Santos published a pathology book in Portuguese, representing a major advancement in veterinary pathology education in Brazil.
The philosophy behind livestock diagnosis in South America. The collection of Dr. Severo Barros includes (2 and 3) a book sent by Dr.h.c. Paul Cohrs in 1962 and (4) a receipt for a book purchased by Dr. Paulo Darcorso Filho in 1966. During this period, the majority of relevant literature was published in German. Courtesy of Dr. David Driemeier (UFRGS).
In Uruguay, Dr. Miguel Rubino (1886-1945) (Fig. 5), who trained at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (now the Max Planck Society) in Berlin and at the Institut Pasteur in Paris, devoted his career to the diagnosis of infectious and parasitic diseases, and phosphorus-deficiency in cattle (Zunino 2023). His work laid the foundations for the establishment of a national network of veterinary diagnostic laboratories under the “División de Laboratorios Veterinarios”, “Ministério de Ganadería, Agricultura y Pesca” (DILAVE-MGAP), with units located in Treinta y Tres, Paysandú, Tacuarembó, and Montevideo.
The philosophy behind livestock diagnosis in South America. Dr. Miguel Rubino. The image was reproduced from the Durazno Digital website9.
In Argentina, during the 1960s and 1970s, Dr. Adolfo Casaro (1936-2016) (Fig. 6-7) and Dr. Bernardo Carrillo (1931-2024) (Fig. 8-9) established the Animal Health Group at the “Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria” (INTA) in Balcarce after completing postgraduate studies at the University of California, Davis. This initiative marked the beginning of an enduring diagnostic tradition and led to the development of an animal health residency program aimed at training new veterinarians (Casaro 1998). The Specialized Diagnostic Service in Balcarce remains active today. Laboratories such as INTA Bariloche and INTA Salta, together with other diagnostic groups within INTA, continue to apply the same methodological approach. These pioneering professionals implemented, within the context of their time and region, a diagnostic model adapted to local conditions, one that emphasized close engagement with field realities while maintaining rigorous scientific standards. Through the work of these pathologists and subsequent generations of researchers, the countries have mentioned significant progress in understanding the diseases that affect livestock production.
The philosophy behind livestock diagnosis in South America. Dr. Adolfo Casaro is depicted (6) performing a field autopsy and (7) analyzing histologic slides. Courtesy of Dr. Germán Cantón (INTA Balcarce).
The philosophy behind livestock diagnosis in South America. Dr. Bernardo Carrillo is depicted (8) investigating enzootic calcinosis associated with Solanum glaucophyllum and (9) trimming a brain specimen in the laboratory. Courtesy of Dr. Juan F. Micheloud (INTA Salta).
Regional Identity
In North America, Europe, and Oceania, veterinary laboratory diagnosis is predominantly based on passive case submission. This model is sustained by substantial financial resources, the strong presence of private universities with diagnostic laboratories, the existence of strategically structured state diagnostic laboratories, tax incentives that support veterinary services, and a well-developed logistical infrastructure. In contrast, South American countries face important structural limitations, including restricted financial resources, the predominance of diagnostic laboratories within public universities, the limited presence of state diagnostic centers, and less developed logistical infrastructure.
As a result, veterinary diagnostic systems in South America have adopted a complementary strategy that incorporates active field investigation (Fig. 10) alongside passive case submission. Through this model, pathologists and diagnostic teams regularly conduct farm visits to investigate disease outbreaks directly in the field. Without this approach, the capacity to reach accurate diagnoses in livestock production systems would be substantially limited. Importantly, many previously unrecognized diseases and epidemiological patterns have been identified during these on-farm investigations, highlighting the critical role of fieldwork in the South American diagnostic tradition.
The philosophy behind livestock diagnosis in South America. (10) The field veterinarian submitted organ samples on two occasions; however, both were autolyzed. The affected steers presented with diarrhea, weight loss, and incoordination. A team from the “Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal” (PSA-INIA Tacuarembó) subsequently visited the property and performed an autopsy on one animal. Gross examination identified ascites, abomasal and mesenteric edema, and hepatic fibrosis. Numerous Senecio spp. plants were observed during the paddock inspection. These findings supported a diagnosis of seneciosis during the visit. (11) A diagnostic expedition was conducted in the arid regions of Salta, Argentina. Autopsy boxes were transported by donkeys to the livestock farms.
The primary objective of this approach is to integrate active field investigations with passive case submission. This integration ensures in situ access to essential diagnostic information, particularly epidemiological data, and facilitates the performance of autopsies on large animals, especially during disease outbreaks. In such circumstances, pathologists with broad diagnostic expertise are better positioned to evaluate clinical signs and investigate potential risk factors, including pasture conditions, feed sources, facilities, water quality, access to forested areas, and the presence of toxic plants (Riet-Correa et al. 2025).
This approach also emphasizes direct interaction with livestock producers and farm workers, which helps establish trust and allows for the collection of more precise and contextualized information. In many cases, achieving diagnostic accuracy is difficult, if not impossible, without on-site farm visits. By integrating field observations with laboratory analysis, this methodology enables the identification of new, endemic, emerging, and re-emerging diseases, such as Eastern and Western equine encephalomyelitis (Silva et al. 2011, JPC 2025). Also, it functions as an early warning system for the potential introduction of exotic diseases, including African swine fever (Tokarnia et al. 2004). A practical example illustrates the importance of this approach. During outbreaks of poisoning caused by hepatotoxic plants, laboratory findings may reveal lesions such as centrilobular necrosis. However, in many regions, this lesion is not specific and may result from exposure to various toxic plants, certain medications, sawfly larvae (Perreyia flavipes), or toxic algae. Field investigations are therefore essential to identify the precise etiological agent. Delays in determining the cause can prolong exposure and result in substantial economic losses for livestock producers.
The Consolidation of Philosophy
Following the development of a strategy adapted to South American conditions, this diagnostic philosophy began to be implemented in numerous laboratories across the region. Its broader adoption coincided with the establishment and consolidation of diagnostic centers at several institutions, including the UFSM, “Universidade Federal de Pelotas” (UFPel), “Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul” (UFRGS), “Universidade Federal de Campina Grande” (UFCG), “Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina” (UESC), “Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco” (UFRPE), “Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul” (UFMS), “Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso” (UFMT), “Universidade de Brasília” (UnB), “Universidade Federal do Pará” (UFPA), “Universidade Federal da Paraíba” (UFPB), and “Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia” (UFRB) in Brazil; the “División de Laboratorios Veterinarios” (DILAVE) and the “Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria” (INIA) in Uruguay; and the “Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria” (INTA) in Argentina, among others.
For example, in Argentina, INTA formally established the National Network of Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratories in 2019, comprising more than 50 laboratories distributed across 15 provinces. Collectively, these institutions have strengthened field-based diagnostic activities and significantly advanced the understanding of livestock diseases, as documented in numerous scientific publications. Regular scientific meetings have also played an important role in consolidating this collaborative network. The “Encontro Nacional de Diagnóstico Veterinário” (Meeting of Diagnostic Laboratories - ENDIVET), held regularly in Brazil since 1992 and on one occasion in Uruguay, has served as a key forum for the continuous exchange of diagnostic experiences, methodologies, and epidemiological information among laboratories. Taken together, these developments provide clear evidence of the effectiveness of this philosophy and demonstrate the consolidation of a distinctive diagnostic model for livestock diseases in South America.
The Fieldwork
When a laboratory initiates field visits to investigate livestock diseases, several factors must be considered. Effective interaction with producers requires an understanding of rural practices and traditions, as well as the ability to earn the trust of individuals who have lived and worked in these regions for generations. This aspect is essential because livestock producers often contribute significantly to the diagnostic process through their observational experience, frequently providing valuable clues about the possible causes of disease outbreaks. In Brazil, several diseases were initially recognized by farmers and later confirmed by diagnostic laboratories. For example, the outbreak of poisoning caused by the mushroom Ramaria flavo-brunnescens in 1958 was first reported by a farmer who informed Dr. Severo Sales de Barros that the disease appeared in eucalyptus forests after cattle consumed what he described as a “yellow mushroom” (Barros 1958). In Argentina, the diagnosis of poisoning by the grass Phalaris angusta was suggested by a farm worker who reported to Dr. Ernesto Odriozola his suspicion regarding the involvement of this plant (Odriozola, personal communication). Similarly, in Uruguay, hepatotoxicity in sheep caused by Vernonia plantaginoides has been recognized by farmers and veterinarians since the 1960s (Dutra et al. 2016).
In Uruguay, field veterinarians are organized through departmental veterinary medical centers, serving as a link between producers and veterinary diagnostic laboratories. This structure improves the reach and effectiveness of diagnostic services nationwide. Field investigations also require a strong logistical commitment. Diagnostic teams must often undertake long journeys and work under demanding environmental conditions, including extreme temperatures, heavy rainfall, storms, floods, and poor road infrastructure. In remote regions such as northwestern Argentina, some farm visits are conducted on horseback (Fig. 11) or even on foot because the affected areas are inaccessible by vehicle.
Systematic Recording of Information Generated in the Diagnostic Routine
In diagnostic systems that rely on both active and passive disease surveillance, the increasing number of cases presents significant challenges for the long-term recording, organization, and management of information. Historically, diagnostic data were recorded manually and later stored using relatively simple computer tools. Despite major technological advances in data management worldwide, many database systems currently used in veterinary diagnostic laboratories remain limited. In many cases, these systems were developed without the direct participation of veterinarians, resulting in tools that do not adequately reflect the workflow, diagnostic reasoning, and specific data requirements of veterinary pathology and field-based disease investigation. Consequently, such platforms often prove insufficient to meet the practical and analytical needs of veterinary diagnostic laboratories.
A database developed by the veterinary pathologist Dr. Fernando Dutra (DILAVE Treinta y Tres), in collaboration with software developers, has resulted in a platform capable of integrating epidemiological, clinical, pathological, and statistical data (Quintela 2025). The system employs standardized codes to record clinical signs, individual animal characteristics (age, sex, and breed), pathological findings, and final diagnoses. Cases are georeferenced through the unique nine-digit livestock establishment identification number assigned by the “Dirección de Contralor de Semovientes” (DICOSE), the official authority responsible for livestock control in Uruguay. This feature enables detailed spatiotemporal analyses of disease occurrence. The database is further connected to a geographic information system (GIS) that incorporates polygons corresponding to official police jurisdictions and is integrated with annual records of livestock establishments and herd declarations, thereby allowing highly precise spatial analyses of diagnostic cases. Currently, the platform contains more than 50 years of diagnostic information generated by DILAVE and, more recently, by the “Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal” (PSA-INIA). This initiative represents the first effort in South America to integrate both active and passive diagnostic information into a single platform designed to generate strategic knowledge for livestock disease surveillance and control. Field-based diagnoses of livestock diseases have led to the publication of several books on ruminant and equid diseases (Riet-Correa et al. 2023), toxic plants (Tokarnia et al. 2012a, Riet-Correa et al. 2024), and mineral deficiency disorders (Tokarnia et al. 2012b).
Conclusions
Adapting diagnostic strategies for livestock diseases was necessary in light of the distinctive characteristics of South American production systems. Enabling diagnostic laboratory teams to conduct systematic farm visits represented a significant paradigm shift in the investigation and diagnosis of livestock diseases. This model not only improved diagnostic accuracy but also contributed to the strengthening of specialized human resources and supported the development of both undergraduate and postgraduate training programs in veterinary medicine and pathology.
The knowledge generated through this process now serves as an important reference for future generations who will be responsible for leading new diagnostic laboratories. This legacy constitutes part of a successful history that current professionals are entrusted with preserving and advancing. Moreover, the experience accumulated over decades highlights the critical importance of sustained collaboration among diagnostic laboratories, field veterinarians, and research institutions. Strengthening these networks is essential to ensure that veterinary diagnostic systems continue to evolve and remain capable of responding effectively to emerging challenges in livestock health and production.
Acknowledgments
Mizael Machado is a researcher of the “Sistema Nacional de Investigadores” (SNI, ANII) of Uruguay.
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9
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Ethical approval
No approval of research ethics committees was required to accomplish the goals of this study since no animal experiments were performed.
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Data availability statement
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article. Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article. Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
