Socio-environmental vulnerability of artisanal fishers during the 2019 oil spill: human exposure and threats to work and health in the Northeastern Region of Brazil

Abstract

Introduction  Artisanal fishers were directly affected by the oil spill that occurred off the Brazilian coast in 2019.

Objective  To identify the socio-environmental vulnerabilities among artisanal fishers in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, resulting from the oil spill, considering the main direct exposure pathways to oil and the lifestyle, health, and working conditions of this population.

Methods  An epidemiological study conducted between 2021 and 2022 with artisanal fishers residing in Environmental Protection Areas in two states of the Northeastern region in Brazil.

Results  Of the 377 fishers interviewed, 58.1% were female, 73.7% reported exposure to oil through inhalation, 51.7% through dermal contact, and 8.2% through the gastric route. Among the participants, 81.7% reported depending exclusively on fishing, 59.7% worked 5-7 days/week, and 56.0% did not stop consuming fishing products.

Conclusion  The high prevalence of inhalation and dermal exposures, combined with the continued consumption of seafood and working in the contaminated environment, revealed significant harms to the health, food security, and income of these communities in the context of a socio-environmental disaster. This highlights the importance of developing strategies to mitigate the damage to these populations.

Keywords
Subsistence Fishing; Social Disaster; Petroleum Pollution; Exposure; Occupational Health

Resumo

Introdução  Os(as) pescadores(as) artesanais foram diretamente afetados pelo derramamento de petróleo ocorrido na costa brasileira em 2019.

Objetivo  Identificar as vulnerabilidades socioambientais em pescadores(as) artesanais nos estados de Bahia e Sergipe, decorrentes do derramamento de petróleo, considerando as principais vias de exposição direta ao petróleo e as condições de vida, saúde e trabalho desta população.

Métodos  Estudo epidemiológico realizado em 2021 e 2022, com pescadores(as) artesanais residentes em áreas de proteção ambiental em dois estados da Região Nordeste do Brasil.

Resultados  Dos(as) 377 pescadores(as) entrevistados(as), 58,1% eram do sexo feminino, 73,7% relataram exposição ao petróleo pela via inalatória, 51,7% pela via dérmica e 8,2% pela via gástrica. Dentre os participantes, 81,7% relataram viver exclusivamente da pesca, 59,7% trabalhavam de cinco a sete dias/semana, 56,0% não interromperam o consumo de pescados/marisco.

Conclusão  As elevadas prevalências de exposições inalatórias e dérmicas, combinadas com as elevadas ocorrências do consumo do pescado e do trabalho no ambiente contaminado, revelaram prejuízos à saúde, à segurança alimentar e à renda das comunidades de pescadores(as) diante de um desastre socioambiental. Isso ressalta a importância da construção de estratégias para mitigar os danos nestas populações.

Palavras-chave
Pesca de Subsistência; Desastre Social; Derramamentos de Petróleo; Exposição; Saúde do Trabalhador

Introduction

In 2019/2020, traditional populations on the Brazilian northeastern coast experienced the largest oil spill ever recorded in the South Atlantic, an event that caused socioeconomic, environmental, and health damage to the populations affected¹,². Human exposure to oil-derived components present in the environment can cause acute and chronic health effects, including psychological, physical, and genotoxic damage³, as well as aggravating socioeconomic and environmental losses in the affected regions⁴-⁶. Despite the risk and potential health effects, artisanal fishers played a central role in protecting coastal-marine ecosystems and mitigating the impacts of this disaster⁷,⁸.

Disasters are events that generate serious interruptions in the functioning of a community/society, in which the damage exceeds the local response capacity. They can be of natural or man-made origin, as occurred in Brazil⁸. Similar events have been happening all over the world in recent decades, including the oil spill after the explosion on the Deepwater Horizon platform in the Gulf of Mexico (2010) and the collision of the Exxon Valdez tanker in Alaska (1989)⁴,⁵. The oil spill in Brazil mainly affected the coast of the Northeast Region, where 5,379.76 tons of oily waste were collected, 10.58% (569.35 tons) in the state of Sergipe and 8.5% (459.49 tons) in Bahia⁹.

In oil spills, estuarine and mangrove ecosystems are the most affected in the long term, causing incalculable damage to biological organisms¹⁰,¹¹, as well as harm to the populations living in the affected regions⁶. Given the immense biodiversity and its potential importance for the ecological dynamics of the regions, the Environmental Protection Areas located on the border between Sergipe and Bahia are among the most affected by the oil spill that occurred in 2019¹.

Environmental Protection Areas are regions that have ecosystems of special importance in South America, they constitute areas that are more sensitive to climate change and make an immeasurable contribution to the maintenance of aquatic organisms, in addition to their socio-economic role for local communities, which may suffer long-term adverse effects due to the presence of hydrocarbons in the environment¹¹.

After the oil spill in Brazil, the COVID-19 pandemic occurred¹². The overlap of these events may have intensified the social and economic inequalities that already exist, especially since these are communities that depend exclusively on fishing for their livelihood¹³. Artisanal fishers may have been disproportionately affected by the oil spill due to the characteristics of their work, predominantly in the sea, rivers, beaches, sandbanks, and mangroves, as well as their greater socio-economic vulnerability⁷,¹⁴.

It is based on the understanding that the fishers affected by the oil spill in 2019 are made vulnerable by structural processes such as state negligence, invisibility in public policies and the historical precariousness of their ways of life¹⁵. Thus, this article adopts the concept of a socio-environmental disaster, resulting from socially produced processes that reveal and intensify vulnerabilities that already exist in the territory¹⁶,¹⁷.

In the literature, some authors have identified the dermal route as the main form of exposure to oil, both in the workplace and in other contaminated environments¹⁸, where the risks related to exposure through direct contact with the skin were greater than exposure through the respiratory and gastric routes¹⁹. Direct exposure to oil is aggravated by the lack of immediate responses from the authorities.

In Brazil, there was no rapid identification or effective action to minimize the damage caused by the oil spill. The National Contingency Plan was activated late and previously demobilized²⁰. As a result, oily residues have continued surfacing in different areas, according to seasonal periods, tidal movements, and climate change²¹. Many of the effects and impacts have yet to be measured, making territories with preexisting vulnerabilities, which already experience conflictual situations in their territories, even more vulnerable.

Thus, this study aims to identify the socio-environmental vulnerabilities of artisanal fishers in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, resulting from the oil spill that occurred in 2019, considering the main routes of direct exposure to oil and the living, health, and working conditions of this population.

Methods

Study design

This is an epidemiological, descriptive cross-sectional study, part of the project entitled “Pesquisa para monitorar os possíveis efeitos à saúde da exposição ao petróleo na população atingida pelo desastre de derramamento de petróleo na costa brasileira no ano de 2019” (Research to monitor the possible health effects of exposure to oil in the population affected by the oil spill disaster off the Brazilian coast in 2019)²².

Study site

The research was carried out in seven communities distributed across two Environmental Protection Areas. Terra Caída, Preguiça, and Pontal belong to the Environmental Protection Area in the South of Sergipe (LS SE) and are located in the municipality of Indiaroba; while the communities Siribinha, Cobó - Sempre Viva, Sítio do Conde, and Poças belong to the Environmental Protection Area in the North of Bahia (LN BA), in the municipality of Conde. These areas were chosen because of the appearance of oil slicks¹ and because of their similar biodiversity, consisting of mangroves and estuaries, sandbanks, dunes, lagoons, and remnants of the Atlantic Forest²³.

To identify the exposed communities, criteria were used such as prioritizing the most affected areas and those identified as being most vulnerable²². Information available in the daily monitoring bulletins issued by the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA)²⁰, sources of information on exposed people from municipal and state health departments in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, and areas demarcated in the report by the National Human Rights Council on the emergency mission in Sergipe and LN BA, carried out in October 2019, were taken into account.

Participants

The population of this study consisted of 377 fishers distributed among the seven communities. All fishers whose names were or were not included in lists provided by fishing communities, previously reviewed by local leaders, were invited to take part in the research on a voluntary basis, due to the lack of an up-to-date register. This invitation was duly publicized by members of the community, and the interviews were carried out at a pre-scheduled date and time.

Participants in the survey had to meet the following criteria: to be a fisher living in the selected study regions affected directly by the oil spill, be over 18 years old, and an active fishing worker during the period of the oil spill in 2019. Participants who did not meet the inclusion criteria for the study, identified during the application of the questionnaire, were excluded from the study, as were those with difficulties in understanding and comprehending the questions, even with the use of visual strategies²².

Data collection

Data was collected between October 2021 and August 2022. The time gap between data collection and the occurrence of the oil spill in 2019/2020 was due to the time needed to approve the resources and feasibility of carrying out the research concomitantly with the atypical moment of global emergency due to the COVID-19 pandemic, when research activities were interrupted. Data collection took place through interviews with participants in each of the communities investigated, with the structured questionnaire being applied in person, after obtaining their free and informed consent.

The questionnaire was developed for the purpose of research, validated using the Delphi method and tested with members of the fishing communities before being applied. It consisted of 314 questions divided into 13 blocks and took about 50 minutes per participant. The data was collected using Qualtrics Surveys software, available on tablets in offline mode²².

Variables

The variables used to characterize the population are from the sections on general information and socioeconomic and housing characterization. The work history and work organization sections were used to characterize the work process of artisanal fishing. To classify individuals according to the routes of exposure, the variables in the section on oil spills, exposure associated with the removal of oil stains and fish consumption were considered. The variables related to health and lifestyle information were obtained from the other health and lifestyle information block. The description of the criteria and categorization of the variables used are shown in Chart 1.

Chart 1
Variables studied and categorization

Variables	Categorization
Exposure routes:
Inhalation:	Fishers who answered “yes” to at least one of these questions were considered to have been exposed by the inhalation route.
Found the oil while fishing/searching
Smelled oil while fishing
Smelled oil while removing oil
Dermal route:	Fishers who answered “yes” to at least one of these questions were considered to have been exposed dermally.
Handled fishing equipment with oil residues
Handled instruments that had accumulated oil residues during cleaning activities
Direct contact of oil with skin during fishing/shellfish gathering
Contact of oil residues with any part of the body
Gastric route:	Fishers who answered “yes” were considered to have been exposed via the gastric route.
Ingestion of water or food contaminated with oil accidentally or not
Socio-demographic and economic variables:
Sex	Male; Female
Age	Dichotomized by the mean (44.4).
Race/ skin color	Black; Brown; White. Self-declared (PNAD, 2023).
Education	Higher education; High school; Elementary school; Illiterate.
Marital status	With partner: Married/Living together; Without partner: Single/Separated/Widowed.
Number of children	No children; 1 or 2 children; 3 or more children.
Income	Dichotomized by the average (640.5).
Closed fishing season compensation*	Yes; No
Brazilian Family Grant Program**	Yes; No
Covariates related to work:
General fishing registration	Yes; No
Age that the participant began fishing professionally	Dichotomized by the mean (13.1).
Fishing locations	River/Sea/Barrage; Shellfish Gathering: Sand/Mangrove/Reef; and both activities.
Number of days worked	Dichotomized by the average (4.8).
Use of diesel/petrol boats	Yes; No
Use of coal/wood as fuel	Yes; No
Fishing is their main work activity	Yes; No
Fished today	Yes; No
Has other jobs	Yes; No
Current exposure to smoke from burning wood	Does not consider himself exposed; Yes, considers himself exposed.
Current exposure to gasoline/diesel engine exhaust	Does not consider himself exposed; Yes, considers himself exposed.
Prior jobs	Yes; No
Previous exposure to smoke from burning wood	No exposure; Yes exposure
Prior exposure to gasoline/diesel engine exhaust	Do not consider themselves exposed; Yes, consider themselves exposed
Pause in fishing work for other reasons other than the oil spill	Yes; No
Pause in fishing work due to oil spill	Yes; No
Covariates on health and lifestyle information:
Pause in fish/seafood consumption	Yes; No
Medical attention due to symptoms	Yes; No
Comorbidity	Yes; No. “Yes” was considered for reporting at least one of these comorbidities: hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular and pulmonary disease

• * “Seguro defeso” is a form of unemployment insurance or financial compensations for artisanal fishers during the closed fishing season.
• ** “Bolsa família” is the Brazilian Family Grant Program.

Statistical analysis

The data was analyzed using RStudio Desktop software²⁴. Descriptive statistical analyses were carried out to obtain frequencies for the qualitative variables and measures of central tendency and dispersion for the quantitative variables. The quantitative variables were then dichotomized by the mean.

Ethical aspects

The study was approved by the Research Ethics Council under the Certificate of Submission for Ethical Appraisal (CAAE) number 29570620.3.0000.5577 on May 11^th, 2023. All participants signed an informed consent form, in accordance with Resolution 466/2012 of the National Health Council.

Results

Of the 377 fishers participating in this survey, 25.5% (n = 96) were residents of the LS SE communities and 74.5% (n = 281) of the LN BA. Table 1 shows the results of exposure to oil spill, considering three routes of exposure: inhalation, dermal, and gastric.

Table 1
Description of the routes of exposure to oil after an oil spill, self-reported by artisanal fishers from traditional communities affected in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, 2021-2022 (n = 377)

	Total		LN - BA*		LS - SE**
	n	%	n	%	n	%
Inhalation
No	99	26.3	87	31.0	12	12.5
Yes	278	73.7	194	69.0	84	87.5
Dermal
No	182	48.3	143	50.9	39	40.6
Yes	195	51.7	138	49.1	57	59.4
Gastric
No	346	91.8	276	98.2	70	72.9
Yes	31	8.2	5	1.8	26	27.1

• * Environmental Protection Area in the North of Bahia.
• ** Environmental Protection Area in the South of Sergipe.

Most of those interviewed, 73.7%, were exposed to oil by inhaling it when they encountered the contaminant in environment and/or smelled it, 87.5% in the LS SE and 69.0% in the LN BA. Moreover, 8.2% reported gastric exposure through accidentally or intentionally ingesting contaminated water/food. Regarding the route of dermal exposure, around half of those interviewed (51.7%) had direct contact with oil and/or handled contaminated equipment. The LS SE had the highest exposures by the three routes: inhalation (87.5%), dermal (59.4%) and gastric (27.1%) (Table 1).

In general, the two Environmental Protection Areas had similar socioeconomic and demographic characteristics: mean age was 44.4 years (SD = 9.9 years), a predominance of females (58.1%), self-declared race/skin color brown/mixed race (52.0%) and black (41.9%), schooling up to elementary school (complete or incomplete) (73.2%), living with partners (71.9%), and having three or more children (53.8%) (Table 2).

Table 2
Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of artisanal fishers from traditional communities affected by the oil spill in Bahia and Sergipe, 2021-2022 (n = 377)

	Total		LN - BA*		LS - SE**
	n	%	n	%	n	%
Gender
Male	158	41.9	118	42.0	40	41.7
Female	219	58.1	163	58.0	56	58.3
Age (years)
≤ 44	180	47.7	126	44.8	54	56.2
> 44	197	52.3	155	55.2	42	43.8
Race/skin color
White	23	6.1	12	4.3	11	11.5
Brown/mixed race***	196	52.0	147	52.3	49	51.0
Black	158	41.9	122	43.4	36	37.5
Schooling****:
Higher education	11	2.9	10	3.6	1	1.0
High School	90	23.9	69	24.6	21	21.9
Elementary	233	61.8	174	61.9	59	61.5
Illiterate	43	11.4	28	10.0	15	15.6
Marital status
With partner	271	71.9	202	71.9	69	71.9
No partner	106	28.1	79	28.1	27	28.1
Children
No children	33	8.8	21	7.5	12	12.5
1 or 2	141	37.4	105	37.4	36	37.5
3 or more	203	53.8	155	55.2	48	50.0
Income in the last month*****
> 640,5	142	38.7	78	28.6	64	68.1
≤ 640,5	225	61.3	195	71.4	30	31.9
Closed fishing compensation
Yes	249	66.0	210	74.7	39	40.6
No	128	34.0	71	25.3	57	59.4
Brazilian Family Grant
Yes	225	59.7	177	63.0	48	50.0
No	152	40.3	104	37.0	48	50.0

• * Environmental Protection Area in the North of Bahia.
• ** Environmental Protection Area in the South of Sergipe.
• ***One person declared themselves to be indigenous and due to the small number they were included in the brown/mixed-race category, so that they could be included in the analysis model, although this was not ideal.
• ****Education considered: illiterate, “no schooling (can’t read or write)”, elementary school “1st-9th year of regular schooling or youth education and apprentice”, high school “10st-12th year of regular schooling” and higher education “1st semester of undergraduate degree”.
• ***** Ten people were unable to answer about their income.

There is a difference in the average monthly income of fishers from LN BA (R$544.5; SD = 275.5) compared to LS SE (R$919.3; SD = 530.7), considering all the income received in the last month (interview period), not just the amount obtained from fishing. There was a significant number of people who did not receive the closed fishing season compensation – “Seguro Defeso” (34.0%) and/or the Brazilian Family Grant – “Bolsa Família” (40.3%), in greater proportion in LS SE (59.4% and 50.0%), compared to LN BA (25.3% and 37.0%), respectively (Table 2).

Table 3 presents data on the work process of artisanal fishers from traditional communities affected by the oil spill in Sergipe and Bahia. Of the 377 interviewees, 14.1% did not have a General Fishing Register (RGP) at the time of the interview. In the APA LS SE, this proportion was 20.8%, while in the APA LN BA, 10.3% of the fishers did not have an RGP, and 8.5% presented a protocol to regularize their registration. However, the majority (96.6%) reported fishing as their main job, and understood that the main job was the one that gives them the most income, 97.6% reported that they were working in fishing/shellfish gathering at the time of the interview, with a similar percentage was observed between the two Environmental Protection Areas. Of these, only 18.3% of fishers worked in activities other than fishing, with a higher percentage in the LS SE (36.5%) compared to the LN BA (12.1%).

Table 3
Characteristics of the work process in artisanal fishing in traditional communities affected by the oil spill in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, 2021-2022 (n = 377)

	Total		LN - BA*		LS - SE**
	n	%	n	%	n	%
General fishing register
Yes	324	85.9	252	89.7	72	75.0
Registration Protocol	28	7.4	24	8.5	4	4.2
No	25	6.6	5	1.8	20	20.8
Age at first job (years)***
> 13	142	37.9	106	38.0	36	37.5
≤ 13	233	62.1	173	62.0	60	62.5
Workplaces
Both locations	197	52.3	141	50.2	56	58.3
River/Sea/Dam	128	34.0	113	40.2	15	15.6
Shore/Mangroves/Reef	52	13.8	27	9.6	25	26.0
Number of days worked
≤ 4	152	40.3	112	39.9	40	41.7
> 4	225	59.7	169	60.1	56	58.3
Use of diesel / gasoline-powered boats
No	176	46.7	165	58.7	11	11.5
Yes	201	53.3	116	41.3	85	88.5
Use of coal/wood as fuel
No	116	30.8	98	34.9	18	18.8
Yes	261	69.2	183	65.1	78	81.2
Fishing is their main job
No	13	3.4	8	2.8	5	5.2
Yes	364	96.6	273	97.2	91	94.8
Currently fishing
Yes	368	97.6	278	98.9	90	93.8
No	9	2.4	3	1.1	6	6.2
Has other activities
Yes	69	18.3	34	12.1	35	36.5
No	308	81.7	247	87.9	61	63.5
Current exposure to wood smoke
Does not consider themselves exposed	247	65.5	207	73.7	40	41.7
Yes, considers themselves exposed	130	34.5	74	26.3	56	58.3
Current exposure to gasoline/diesel engine exhaust
Does not consider themselves exposed	228	60.5	206	73.3	22	22.9
Yes, considers themselves exposed	149	39.5	75	26.7	74	77.1
Jobs before fishing
Yes	77	20.4	45	16.0	32	33.3
No	300	79.6	236	84.0	64	66.7
Previous exposure to wood smoke
Does not consider themselves exposed	318	84.4	232	82.6	86	89.6
Yes, considers themselves exposed	59	15.6	49	17.4	10	10.4
Previous exposure to gasoline engine exhaust
Does not consider themselves exposed	346	91.8	257	91.5	89	92.7
Yes, considers themselves exposed	31	8.2	24	8.5	7	7.3
Break from fishing for other reasons
No	290	76.9	234	83.3	56	58.3
Yes	87	23.1	47	16.7	40	41.7
Break due to the spill****
No	97	25.8	73	26.1	24	25.0
Yes	279	74.2	207	73.9	72	75.0

• * Environmental Protection Area in the North of Bahia.
• ** Environmental Protection Area in the South of Sergipe.
• *** Two people were unable to answer the age at which they started fishing.
• **** One person was unable to answer whether they had taken a break due to the spill.

Among the artisanal fishers, 62.1% reported having started fishing between childhood and adolescence, working an average of 4.8 (SD = 1.4) days a week and 59.7% working more than four days a week. Work locations characteristic of the shellfish gathering process were observed, such as the sand, mangrove swamp, and reef (13.8%), but also line and net fishing, such as the river, sea, and dam (34.0%), or people working in both places (52.3%). Interruptions in fishing activities due to the oil spill were reported by 74.2% and 23.1% mentioned having interrupted the activity at some point in their lives due to another cause, with the highest percentage in the LS SE (41.7%) (Table 3).

During fishing activities, 53.3% confirmed that they used diesel or gasoline-powered boats to travel, with a higher percentage in LS SE (88.5%) and a lower percentage in LN BA (41.3%), and 69.2% of the fishers used charcoal/wood to cook food for their own consumption and/or to process shellfish, 81.2% in LS SE. Regarding self-perception of chemical exposure during fishing, 39.5% of fishers consider themselves to be currently exposed to gasoline/diesel engine exhaust and 34.5% to smoke from burning wood in their current work, however, the highest proportions were found in LS SE, 77.1% and 58.3%, respectively. Only 20.4% carried out activities prior to fishing, so there was a reduction in the percentage of self-perceived exposure prior, where 15.6% considered themselves exposed to wood smoke and 8.2% to gasoline/diesel engine exhaust (Table 3).

Most fishers reported that they were unaware of any pre-existing health problems (65.9%), with the highest percentage of unawareness of comorbidities in LN BA (70.8%). A portion of the workers interviewed sought medical attention due to symptoms following exposure (18.6%), with a higher percentage in LS SE (30.2%). During this period, 44% of them reported not having eaten fish/seafood due to the oil spill, with the highest percentage in LN BA (46.6%) (Table 4).

Table 4
Description of health after oil spills, self-reported by artisanal fishers from traditional communities affected in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, 2021-2022 (n = 377)

	Total		LN - BA*		LS - SE**
	n	%	n	%	n	%
Comorbidities***
No	243	65.9	196	70.8	47	51.1
Yes	126	34.1	81	29.2	45	48.9
Needed medical attention
No	307	81.4	240	85.4	67	69.8
Yes	70	18.6	41	14.6	29	30.2
Pause in fish/seafood consumption
No	211	56.0	150	53.4	61	63.5
Yes	166	44.0	131	46.6	35	36.5

• * Environmental Protection Area in the North of Bahia.
• ** Environmental Protection Area in the South of Sergipe.
• *** Eight people were unable to report the presence of comorbidities. They were considered “yes” if they self-reported one or more comorbidities.

Discussion

The results showed that the fishers were exposed to oil during their fishing work and/or during voluntary waste removal activities. The highest prevalence of exposure to oil was identified by the inhalation route (73.7%), followed by the dermal and gastric routes. Among the routes of exposure, the dermal route is considered to pose the greatest risk to health¹⁹, although the inhalation route had a higher frequency (73.7% vs. 51.7%) in this population.

Fishing communities have synergistic relationship with the environment, which is their place of work, life, and leisure. Environmental changes triggered by disasters such as oil spills can be potential intensifiers of health-related risks and threats to livelihoods. Various acute and chronic effects harmful to human health have been observed following oil spills in coastal ecosystems³. Experiencing disasters induces stressors of primary or secondary origin to traumatic events and can reflect individual and collective effects in the following dimensions: psychological, physical, economic, social, and cultural²⁵.

An important factor observed in this study was the effect on the food security of these people, which can have negative effects in the various dimensions. The results showed an interruption in fish/seafood consumption and fishing activity among this population due to the oil spill. However, this fish and shellfish constitute the main sources of food and resources for the purchase of other foodstuffs by these communities. In communities affected by the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, researchers identified a greater perception of poor-quality seafood products, greater concerns about seafood safety, and behavioral changes related to consumption patterns²⁶.

In Brazil, there was a widespread suspension of the sale of fish/seafood caught in the affected regions, widely publicized by the media⁷. Inefficient integration between the competent agencies resulted in decentralized and unpunctual actions, so that the dissemination of information did not flow in a relevant and accessible way to local communities²⁷. In disasters, regulatory and inspection agencies must play a fundamental role in controlling the safety of the supply of these products, as well as dissemination of this information to the population. This communication is an extremely important tool and, when used accurately, has the power to reduce misunderstandings and reduce damage.

Subsequently, through Act 10.080 of 2019, the federal government authorized the extension of the closed fishing season compensation, which was provided because there was serious contamination by chemical agents, preventing artisanal fishing activities²⁸. However, the benefit, which is intended to protect these communities because of the suspension seafood sales, was not granted in its entirety to all artisanal fishers. In this study, many fishing workers did not receive the closed fishing season compensation and a considerable number did not have the General fishing register, the document needed to prove their activity and to grant the benefits.

The negative effects on the sale and prices of fishing products after the oil spill have further compromised the socio-economic conditions of the communities, which rarely have another source of income²⁹. From the perspective of the living territory, which was built through relationships of knowledge with the environment and inheritance cultivated between generations, the fundamental importance of the these regions’ ecosystems for the care of the territory stands out, with artisanal fishing playing a key role. Among the data, there is a higher frequency of people who live exclusively from fishing and almost all of them consider fishing to be their main job source of income.

Furthermore, the changes in the value of the products and the characteristics of the work process must be considered. These issues, coupled with the presence of middlemen, the lack of adequate processing and storage conditions, as well as the absence of cooperative organizations³⁰, can intensify the devaluation of fishing work. The reduction in the seafood trade after the oil spill indicates that artisanal fishers were the social group most affected, and shellfish gatherers to a greater extent⁹.

Most of the participants are women, and most of them live with their partners and children. It is worth highlighting the involvement of gender issues in increasing working hours by two or even three times, through fishing activities, domestic services, and family caregiving³¹,³².

Among the participants in the survey, we can see that most people report getting involved in artisanal fishing even before the age of 14. The practice is primarily family-based, collective, and often community-based, and it passes on knowledge and perpetuates practices through collective educational processes through the nature of the work and its teaching through oral tradition. It is a socio-economic reproduction that upholds cultural aspects.

The study also revealed that 93.9% of those interviewed declared themselves to be brown/mixed-race. Racial inequality is a structural problem in Brazil’s territorial formation, with artisanal fishing, its spaces and subjects, representing one of its most evident expressions. The relevance of this data recalls the current context of negligence on the part of political authorities in the face of environmental racism.

In Brazil, environmental conflicts, such as the oil spill, reveal a scenario where racism, prejudice, and inequality are inherent, affecting the groups most underserved by the state, as a result of their historical, economic, or social heritage³³.

In addition to the presence of exposure due to the one-off event of the oil spill, routine exposure faced by these communities during the work process were verified in this research. There is a limited understanding among fishers of their daily exposures related to fishing activities, in which the majority interact with petrochemical products.

A large proportion of the participants are exposed to petroleum products daily, as is the case with combustion-powered boats. The perception of contamination following oil spills in communities in Nigeria was associated with negative health effects. Affected people who had greater knowledge of the exposure showed greater intolerance to the event and emotional distress³⁴.

The perception of risk can also act as a driver for the use of coping strategies in conflicting situations such as disasters, as greater coping by individuals in the face of an oil spill is predictive of better physical and mental health than people with less coping²⁶,³⁵. That said, knowledge is an essential tool for transformation in various contexts. When used to recognize the damage and build protective measures in future conditions, it is highly necessary.

The majority of those interviewed, 65.9%, reported that they had no knowledge of pre-existing health problems. The literature reports that among the health problems seen in the artisanal fishing population, musculoskeletal disorders, skin lesions due to exposure to the sun and marine organisms and eye problems stand out. In general, these are conditions that can be treated and prevented when access to basic health care is guaranteed³⁶.

Catching and preparing shellfish involves excessive use of force and repetitive effort, the effects of which can be suggestive of work-related injuries and disorders³¹,³²,³⁷. A higher frequency (59.7%) of fishers working between five and seven days a week was observed in this study, in a similar proportion in the two Environmental Protection Areas. Shellfish gatherers in the Sergipe region, for example, reported extensive daily working hours and the frequent presence of muscle pain that was not linked to fishing during most medical consultations³⁸, making it difficult to establish a causal link and diagnose the disease.

Work-related physical illnesses, psychological suffering and fragile living conditions cannot be understood in isolation, but as part of a continuous process of vulnerability that the spill aggravated. The damage caused was varied, cumulative and some of it continues to this day.

The afflictions, fears and anxieties related to the survival of these communities have intensified³⁹. This study reveals the importance of scientific research to identify vulnerabilities and risks in traditional populations, describes some difficulties and exposures during the work process in artisanal fishing in communities in Sergipe and Bahia, and learnings related to exposures that can be configured as environmental determinants harmful to survival.

Since their occupation, these territories have undergone constant transformations and countless socio-environmental conflicts due to human actions accentuated by the lack of oversight and protective public policies⁴⁰. Currently, because of the damage to access to natural resources and control over the use of the territory, they are undergoing changes in economic relations through the presence of industrial fishing, the growth of shrimp farming, tourist developments and real estate speculation¹⁷. The oil spill highlights pre-existing problems in artisanal fishing territories that have intensified the impacts of the event.

Even years after the occurrence of the socio-environmental disaster, this research is timely because it considers the importance of remembering the oil spill and its tragic effects on these communities, which suffer to this day from the lack of answers and reparations for the impacts it has had on their lives.

Conclusion

The artisanal fishing communities affected by the 2019 oil spill and located in the Environmental Protection Areas in the South of Sergipe and in the North of Bahia are remnants of Afro-Brazilian populations. Historically, they have suffered from the structural problems of capitalist development, such as inequality, territorial expropriation, racism and environmental impacts in the Brazilian coastal-marine zone.

The socio-environmental event studied was yet another harmful episode that continues to this day and affects the health of artisanal fishers. There was a high prevalence of inhalation and dermal exposure among fishing workers, who had a low perception of occupational risks and no knowledge of the potential health effects. This situation intensifies the vulnerabilities already present in these traditional communities, overlapping the dimensions of these fishers’ lives.

It is essential to establish protocols and coping strategies for similar situations that may occur in the future and persistently affect these populations, who resist a history of growing vulnerability and neglect by both the health and social services sectors. Targeted public policies need to be developed that provide access to services and validate individual and collective rights.

The Environmental Protection Areas are inhabited by communities in situations of socio-economic vulnerability, who face inequalities related to the process of working in fishing and the lack of recognition of rights. These populations exercise and practice a remarkable commitment to protecting and maintaining these territories, through the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.

In addition, their mobilization to reduce the damage reinforced the importance of community practices in the sustainable management of natural resources, attesting to the fact that traditional knowledge contributes to socio-environmental defense in the face of disasters. This experience highlights the need to integrate local communities into environmental preservation strategies, as provided for in the principles of global sustainability.

References

• ¹ Soares MO,Teixeira CEP, Bezerra LEA, Paiva SV, Tavares TCL, Garcia TC, Araújo JT, Campos CC, Ferreira SMC, Matthews-Cascon H, Frota A, Mont'Alverne TCF, Silva ST, Rabelo EF, Barroso CX, Freitas JEP, Melo Júnior M, Campelo RPS, Santana CS, Carneiro PBM, Meirelles AJ, Santos BA, Oliveira AHB, Horta P, Cavalcante RM. Oil spill in South Atlantic (Brazil), environmental and governmental disaster. Mar Policy. 2020 Feb;115:103879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103879
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103879
• ² Nobre P, Lemos AT, Giarolla E, Camayo R, Namikawa L, Kampel M, et al. The 2019 northeast Brazil oil spill: scenarios. An Acad Bras Cienc. 2022;94(suppl 2): e20210391. https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765202220210391
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765202220210391
• ³ Laffon B, Pásaro E, Valdiglesias V. Effects of exposure to oil spills on human health: updated review. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2016;19(3-4):105-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2016.1168730
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2016.1168730
• ⁴ Broekema W. Crisis-induced learning and issue politicization in the EU: The Braer, Sea Empress, Erika, and Prestige Oil Spill disasters. Public Adm. 2016 Jun;94(2):381-98. https://doi.org/10.1111/padm.12170
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/padm.12170
• ⁵ Barron MG, Vivian DN, Heintz RA, Yim UH. Long-term ecological impacts from oil spills: comparison of Exxon Valdez, Hebei Spirit, and Deepwater Horizon. Environ Sci Technol. 2020 Jun;54(11):6456-67. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b05020
  » https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b05020
• ⁶ Sandifer PA, Ferguson A, Finucane ML, Partyka M, Solo-Gabriele HM, Walker AH, et al. Human health and socioeconomic effects of the deepwater horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Oceanography (Wash DC). 2021;34(1):174-91. https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2021.125
  » https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2021.125
• ⁷ Pena PG, Northcross AL, Lima MA, Rêgo RCF. Derramamento de óleo bruto na costa brasileira em 2019: emergência em saúde pública em questão. Cad Saude Publica. 2020;36(2):e00231019. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00231019
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00231019
• ⁸ Peres MC, Freitas CM. O desastre tecnológico envolvendo derramamento de petróleo no Brasil: diagnóstico preliminar sobre lições apreendidas e perspectivas futuras para o setor saúde: relatório técnico. Rio de Janeiro; 2021 [citado 15 jul 2025]. Disponível em: https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/fiocruz/resource/pt/arc-56099
  » https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/fiocruz/resource/pt/arc-56099
• ⁹ Soares MO, Teixeira CE, Bezerra LE, Rabelo EF, Castro IB, Cavalcante RM. The most extensive oil spill registered in tropical oceans (Brazil): the balance sheet of a disaster. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022 Mar;29(13):19869-77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18710-4
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18710-4
• ¹⁰ Oliveira OM, Queiroz AFS, Cerqueira JR, Soares SA, Garcia KS, Pavani Filho A, et al. Environmental disaster in the northeast coast of Brazil: forensic geochemistry in the identification of the source of the oily material. Mar Pollut Bull. 2020 Nov;160:111597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111597
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111597
• ¹¹ Fernandes GM, Martins DA, Santos RP, Santiago IS, Nascimento LS, Oliveira AH, et al. Levels, source appointment, and ecological risk of petroleum hydrocarbons in tropical coastal ecosystems (northeast Brazil): baseline for future monitoring programmes of an oil spill area. Environ Pollut. 2022 Mar;296:118709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118709
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118709
• ¹² Antonino LZ. Ramos Filho ES. A condução governamental no derramamento do petróleo e na pandemia da COVID-19 no Brasil. 14º Encontro Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Geografia; 10-15 out. 2021 [citado 10 jun 2023]. Disponível em: https://editorarealize.com.br/artigo/visualizar/78062
  » https://editorarealize.com.br/artigo/visualizar/78062
• ¹³ Câmara SF, Silva FR, Pinto FR, Soares MO. Wicked multi-problems (COVID-19 + Oil Spill + wildFires) in Brazil and their effects on socioeconomic vulnerability. Int J Soc Econ. 2022 Sep;49(11):1625-42. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-09-2021-0536
  » https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-09-2021-0536
• ¹⁴ Câmara SF, Pinto FR, Silva FR, Soares MO, Paula TM. Socioeconomic vulnerability of communities on the Brazilian coast to the largest oil spill (2019-2020) in tropical oceans. Ocean Coast Manag. 2021;202:105506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105506
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105506
• ¹⁵ Carmo ME, Guizardi FL. O conceito de vulnerabilidade e seus sentidos para as políticas públicas de saúde e assistência social. Cad Saude Publica. 2018;24(3): e00101417. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00101417
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00101417
• ¹⁶ Porto PS, Porto MF S. Desastres, crise e justiça ambiental: reflexões a partir do contexto brasileiro. Social Questão. 2015 [citado 15 jul 2025;18(33):153-76. Disponível em: https://osocialemquestao.ser.puc-rio.br/media/OSQ_33_5_Porto_Porto.pdf
  » https://osocialemquestao.ser.puc-rio.br/media/OSQ_33_5_Porto_Porto.pdf
• ¹⁷ Flores MG, Medeiros AC, Peixinho BC, Nepomuceno MM, Nascimento EF. Gurgel AM, et al. Processos críticos protetores e destrutivos no trabalho das pescadoras artesanais do litoral Pernambucano, Brasil. Cien Saude Colet. 2024;29(7): e03612024. https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/ZXSxcrnKDFsYNpNLd5jtP4G/?format=html⟨=pt
  » https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/ZXSxcrnKDFsYNpNLd5jtP4G/?format=html⟨=pt
• ¹⁸ Marigómez I. Oil, crude. In: Wexler P, Abdollahi M, Peyster A, Gad SC, Greim H, Harper S, et al., editors. Encyclopedia of toxicology. 3rd ed. Oxford: Elsevier's Science & Technology Rights; 2014. p. 663-9.
• ¹⁹ Apiratikul R, Pongpiachan S, Hashmi MZ. Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal soils of Koh Samed Island (Thailand) after the oil spill incident in 2013. Mar Pollut Bull. 2020 Jan;150:110736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110736
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110736
• ²⁰ Ministério do Meio Ambiente e Mudança do Clima (BR).IBAMA. Desmobilização e Relatórios: Manchas de Óleo. Brasília, DF: Ministério do Meio Ambiente e Mudança do Clima; 2022 [citado 4 abr 2023]. Disponível em: https://www.gov.br/ibama/pt-br/assuntos/fiscalizacao-e-protecao-ambiental/emergencias-ambientais/manchasdeoleo/desmobilizacao-e-relatorios
  » https://www.gov.br/ibama/pt-br/assuntos/fiscalizacao-e-protecao-ambiental/emergencias-ambientais/manchasdeoleo/desmobilizacao-e-relatorios
• ²¹ Lessa GC, Teixeira CE, Pereira J, Santos FM. The 2019 Brazilian oil spill: insights on the physics behind the drift. J Mar Syst. 2021 Oct;222:103586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2021.103586
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2021.103586
• ²² Rêgo RF, Machado LO, Sentilles F, Mota LS, Lima VM, Meyer A, et al. Developing epidemiological research in response to an oil spill disaster in Brazil: study design and validation of a questionnaire. Cien Saude Colet. 2024 [citado 19 dez 2024]. Disponível em: http://cienciaesaudecoletiva.com.br/artigos/developing-epidemiological-research-in-response-to-an-oil-spill-disaster-in-brazil-study-design-and-validation-of-a-questionnaire/19430?id=19430
  » http://cienciaesaudecoletiva.com.br/artigos/developing-epidemiological-research-in-response-to-an-oil-spill-disaster-in-brazil-study-design-and-validation-of-a-questionnaire/19430?id=19430
• ²³ Faxina F, Freitas LB. Análise de implantação do turismo de de base comunitária em Terra Caída, Sergipe, Brasil. Tur Visão Ação. 2021;23(1):242-62. https://doi.org/10.14210/rtva.v23n1.p242-262
  » https://doi.org/10.14210/rtva.v23n1.p242-262
• ²⁴ Venables WN, Smith DM, Team RC. An introduction to R, Notes on R: a programming environment for data analysis and graphics version 4.3.0 (2023-04-21). R Development Core Team. 2023 [citadi 4 jun 2023]. Disponível em: https://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/r-release/R-intro.pdf
  » https://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/r-release/R-intro.pdf
• ²⁵ Nicholls K, Picou S, Mccord S. Enhancing disaster resilience by reducing stress-associated health impacts. Front Public Health. 2018;6:373. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00373
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00373
• ²⁶ Croisant SA, Lin YL, Shearer JJ, Prochaska J, Phillips-Savoy A, Gee J, et al. The gulf coast health alliance: health risks related to the macondo spill (GC-HARMS) study: self-reported health effects. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14(11):1328. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111328
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111328
• ²⁷ Barbeiro PP, Inojosa FC. Assessing the actions of the Brazilian Federal Government to respond to the 2019 mysterious oil spill: a perpective of the national environmental agency. An Acad Bras Cienc. 2022;94. https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765202220210320
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765202220210320
• ²⁸ Brasil. Decreto n o 10.080, de 24 de outubro de 2019. Altera o Decreto nº 8.424, de 31 de março de 2015, que regulamenta a Lei nº 10.779, de 25 de novembro de 2003, para dispor sobre a concessão do benefício de seguro-desemprego, durante o período de defeso, ao pescador profissional artesanal que exerce sua atividade exclusiva e ininterruptamente. Diario Oficial União. 25 out 2019.
• ²⁹ Estevo M O, Lopes PF, Oliveira Júnior JGC, Junqueira AB, Santos APO, Lima JAS, et al. Immediate social and economic impacts of a major oil spill on Brazilian coastal fishing communities. Mar Pollut Bull. 2021;164:111984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.111984
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.111984
• ³⁰ Magalhães HF, Costa-Neto EM, Schiavetti A. Saberes pesqueiros relacionados à coleta de siris e caranguejos (Decapoda: Brachyura) no município de Conde, Estado da Bahia. Biota Neotrop. 2011 Apr;11(2):45-54. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1676-06032011000200005
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/S1676-06032011000200005
• ³¹ Pena PG. Freitas M do CS de, Cardim A. Trabalho artesanal, cadências infernais e lesões por esforços repetitivos: estudo de caso em uma comunidade de mariscadeiras na Ilha de Maré, Bahia. Cien Saude Coletiva. 2011;16(8):3383-92. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-81232011000900005
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-81232011000900005
• ³² Rêgo RF, Müller JS, Falcão IR, Pena PG. Vigilância em saúde do trabalhador da pesca artesanal na Baía de Todos os Santos: da invisibilidade à proposição de políticas públicas para o Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). Rev Bras Saude Ocup. 2018;43(supl 1):e10 s. https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-6369000003618
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-6369000003618
• ³³ Abreu I S. Biopolítica e racismo ambiental no Brasil: a exclusão ambiental dos cidadãos. Opinion Juridica. 2013;12(24):97-100.
• ³⁴ Nriagu J, Udofia EA, Ekong I, Ebuk G. Health risks associated with oil pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2016;13(3):346. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13030346
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13030346
• ³⁵ Osofsky H, Hansel TC, Speier A, Osofsky J, Savage N. Environmental concerns and quality of life following the gulf oil spill: factors contributing to behavioral health. SPE Health, Safety, Security, Environment & Social Responsibility Conference. New Orleans: Society of Petroleum Engineers; 2017.
• ³⁶ Rios A O, Rêgo R CF, Pena PG. Doenças em trabalhadores da pesca. Rev Baiana Saude Publica. 2011;35(1):175-88. https://doi.org/10.22278/2318-2660.2011.v35.n1.a1025
  » https://doi.org/10.22278/2318-2660.2011.v35.n1.a1025
• ³⁷ Falcão IR, Couto MC, Lima VM, Pena PG, Andrade LL, Müller JS, et al. Prevalence of neck and upper limb musculoskeletal disorders in artisan fisherwomen/shellfish gatherers in Saubara, Bahia, Brazil. Cien Saude Colet. 2015 Aug;20(8):2469-80. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015208.17272014
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015208.17272014
• ³⁸ Fonte CS, Martins ML, Pena PG, Loureiro CF, Carvalho ME, Santos TP, et al. Aspectos da saúde laboral das marisqueiras do Estado de Sergipe: desafios e possibilidades. IX EPEA - Encontro Pesquisa em Educação Ambiental. 2017 Aug [citado 11 jun 2023]. Disponível em: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358128535
  » https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358128535
• ³⁹ Carvalho MN, Moraes LS, Santos TS, Costa AE, Flores EC, Santos SC. O grito de luta e a resistência de marisqueiras afetadas pelo derramamento de óleo no litoral de Sergipe. In: Rêgo RC, Machado LO, Mafra E, editors. Maré bruta: um panorama do derramamento de petróleo na costa do Brasil em 2019: impactos e gestão do desastre na perspectiva das comunidades. Guarujá: Editora Científica Digital; 2024. p. 88-103.
• ⁴⁰ Oliveira FS, Carvalho MES. Conflitos socioambientais na APA em Estância/SE. Geosul. 2021;36(8):95-118. https://doi.org/10.5007/2177-5230.2021.e73007
  » https://doi.org/10.5007/2177-5230.2021.e73007

• Information on academic work:
  Article based on the master’s thesis entitled “Pescadores(as) artesanais expostos ao derramamento de óleo/petróleo e efeitos à saúde: um estudo seccional em áreas de proteção Ambiental” (Artisanal fishers exposed to oil spills and health effects: a cross-sectional study in environmental protection areas), submitted by Mariana Nascimento Carvalho, to the Postgraduate Program in Health, Environment and Work at the Federal University of Bahia, on March 19, 2024.
• Data availability:
  The entire data set supporting the results of this study is available on request from the corresponding author.
• Presentation at a scientific event:
  The authors inform that the study has not been presented at a scientific event.
• Funding:
  Master’s scholarship from the Bahia State Research Foundation (BOL0628/2022). Research funded by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel - Capes (AUXPE 29/2020); National Council for Scientific and Technological Development - CNPq (440784/2020-4); Ministry of Health, Decentralized Execution Term (TED 49/2021); INCT Ambtropic - Phase II (465634/2014-1).

Edited by

• Responsible editors:
  Carlos Machado de Freitas
  Leila Posenato Garcia

Data availability

The entire data set supporting the results of this study is available on request from the corresponding author.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  19 Dec 2025
• Date of issue
  2025

History

• Received
  27 Dec 2024
• Reviewed
  27 Aug 2025
• Accepted
  15 Sept 2025