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Abstract Background Social support is relevant to studying well-being, quality of life, and health during aging, particularly in people over 50. Therefore, brief instruments that allow its measurement within the clinical evaluation and research processes are necessary. The ENRICH Social Support Scale (ESSI) is a brief and easy-to-use instrument that measures the perception of social support; however, its psychometric properties in people over 50 in the Chilean context have yet to be tested. Method This study had a non-experimental, longitudinal panel design in which a sample of 303 people over 50 years of age (M = 55.14 years, SD = 5.19; 52% women) were administered a survey incorporating sociodemographic variables, the ESSI and the Newsom Social Negativity Scale. 277 participants completed the follow-up survey (M = 56.75 years, SD = 5.15; 54% women). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), structural equation modeling (SEM), invariance analysis, and internal consistency tests were performed to determine the psychometric properties. Results The six items from the scale load in a single-factor model obtained an excellent fit to the data and reliability coefficients (α = 0.902; ω = 0.904). The SEM analysis evidenced an inverse correlation between the ESSI and Newsom's social negativity scale, demonstrating evidence of construct validity. Furthermore, in the sex invariance analyses, the scalar level was reached, implying that the items’ meanings are the same for men and women. Finally, the residual level was reached in the temporal invariance analyses, which means that the scale items are consistent in time. Conclusions The ESSI is a reliable and valid tool to be used in the Chilean context both in the clinical setting and in research on people over 50. The evidence obtained supports its usability to appropriately measure the perception of social support, which is relevant considering that it has been associated with reports of higher quality of life and lower mortality and morbidity during aging.

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Abstract Background Dieting is a common practice around the world. People who wish to lose weight, improve their eating habits, or reach a desired level of health often diet. Rumination, a pattern of repetitive negative thoughts and emotions, is typically found when individuals diet. The current study aimed to identify physical and psychological differences between maladaptive and normative eating behaviors in a sample from Lebanon. Methods A cross-sectional design was adopted for the current study. It occurred between June and July 2022. Four hundred participants aged 18 and above participated. The research team used a snowball sampling method to recruit volunteers from all governorates of Lebanon. Results Beta values were used to compare independent variables in order to infer those that have the strongest effect on the dependent ones. Higher Body Mass Index, and belonging to cluster 3 (restriction of food intake and rumination) and cluster 1 (maladaptive eating behavior and rumination) compared to cluster 2 (normative eating behavior and thought) were significantly related to more dieting. Higher physical activity index and belonging to cluster 3 (restriction of food intake and rumination) and cluster 1 (maladaptive eating behavior and rumination) compared to cluster 2 (normative eating behavior and thought) were significantly related to higher levels of orthorexia nervosa tendencies. Conclusions The current research demonstrated a relationship between Body Mass Index, physical activity, rumination, and maladaptive eating patterns including restriction of food intake, dieting, and orthorexia nervosa. These results can help with identifying physical and psychological factors associated with maladaptive eating patterns, as well as guide interventions within the Lebanese population.

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Abstract Background Limited research has been conducted on the relationship between inflammatory markers and psychological status in medical staff fighting COVID-19. Objective This article examines the psychological and inflammatory conditions of medical personnel working on the front lines of the battle against COVID-19. Methods: A total of 102 clinical staff members were included in this study. All subjects received the Symptom Checklist-90 questionnaire (SCL-90) and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-Civilian questionnaires for assessing different mental symptoms. The levels of various inflammatory markers, including IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-a, and IFN-γ, along with GDNF, were evaluated. Results Spearman correlation analysis showed that the levels of IL-6 were positively associated with the anxiety score (Spearman's rho = .230, p = .021), obsessive–compulsive symptoms (Spearman's rho = .201, p = .042). The levels of IL-8 were negatively associated with the anxiety score (Spearman's rho = -.223, p = .028), obsessive–compulsive symptoms (Spearman's rho = -.252, p = .012), hyperarousal (Spearman's rho = -.221, p = .028). The levels of TNF-α were positively associated with the anxiety score (Spearman's rho = .201, p = .045), obsessive–compulsive symptoms (Spearman's rho = .222, p = .035). Conclusion Generally, our results suggested that IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α might play a role in the development of psychological symptoms among medical staff.

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Abstract Objective To analyze the relationship between empathy and its domains (i.e., affective and cognitive) and stress in medical students. Methods An online cross-sectional study with 543 medical students as respondents divided in three groups: pre-clinical cycle (n = 173), clinical cycle (n = 197), and internship (n = 173). The participants completed the sociodemographic questionnaire, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and the Perceived stress scale. Results The participants were mostly female (71.5%) with an average age of 23.54 (± 4.54) years old. Medical students in the clinical cycle, when compared to the ones in their pre-clinical cycle and internship, showed higher stress levels. Pre-clinical students presented higher levels of total empathy and its affective domain. The highest levels of empathy, especially affective empathy, were associated with higher stress levels in all three groups. Regarding cognitive empathy, there was no observed association with stress among the groups. Conclusions The levels of empathy and its affective domain correlated significantly with the stress indicators among students of different cycles (i.e., pre-clinical, clinical cycle, and internship).

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Abstract Background High levels of future anxiety in parents may not only affect their cognitive processes, and attitudes but also impact their parenting behaviour and relations with the children. Objective In the present study, we aimed to identify the differences in the intensity of parents’ future anxiety across demographic variables and to assess demographic predictors of FA. Methods A group of 103 parents from Eastern Poland (71% mothers and 29% fathers) completed the Future Anxiety Scale. Their children were aged 3—16 years. The 10 aspects of Future Anxiety were compared across the five parent demographic variables of gender, age, level of education, place of living (rural vs. urban), and number of children. Results The results show that parents’ education level, gender, and the number of children in the family were predictors of FA. Parents’ age and place of living did not significantly predict FA. Mothers reported significantly higher levels of anxiety than fathers, for both general future anxiety and helplessness. Parents who had only one child reported higher levels of helplessness. However, it was the parents’ level of education that showed the greatest number of significant differences. Parents with only secondary education reported higher average scores on seven (70%) of the 10 aspects of future anxiety. The differences were significant for general future anxiety, health and wellbeing, restricted freedom, the meaning of life, pessimism, helplessness, and isolation. Conclusion These findings indicated the possible groups of parents who may need support and identified potential areas of intervention.

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Abstract Background The profile of caregivers focuses on socio-demographic variables (age, gender, kinship, and educational level). However, buffer variables (e.g., dysfunctional thoughts) and indicators of the impacts of caregiving (e.g., stress) are often overlooked. Objective The study aims to offer a comprehensive view of the profile of the family caregiver of people with dementia by considering aspects contemplated in theoretical explanatory models of care. Methods It was based on a cross-sectional design. Socio-demographic and care-related characteristics and variables of the consequences of caregiving and related buffers were evaluated for 40 family caregivers of people with dementia. The Short form of Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised (SPSI-R-25), the Leisure Time Satisfaction Survey (LTS), the Revised Scale for Caregiving Self-Efficacy (RSCSE), the Escala de Habilidades Sociales (EHS), the Psychosocial Support Questionnaire (PSQ), the Cuestionario de Pensamientos Disfuncionales (CPD), the Caregiver Burden Interview (CBI), the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D), the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and the World Health Organization Quality of Life Assessment–AGE (WHOQOL-AGE) were utilized. Descriptions of the variables and contrast tests (chi-square tests, t-tests, and two-factor ANOVAs) were made and used to compare the differences according to gender and kinship. Results Family caregivers are women, typically around 60 years old, wives or daughters, married, with primary/secondary education, who spend long hours caring with little support. They presented a low level of social and problem-solving skills, received little social support, had low self-efficacy and quality of life, highly dysfunctional thoughts, over-load, depressive symptomatology, and stress. Significant differences were found according to kinship in educational level, employment status, hours per day dedicated to care time, and contemplating placing the person in a nursing home. Significant differences by kinship were also found in self-efficacy for responding to disruptive behaviors, perceived social support, and stress. Spouses have lower levels of this type of self-efficacy and have higher levels of stress but perceive greater social support. Males have higher levels of dysfunctional thoughts. Conclusion This study facilitates the identification of the specific needs of caregivers, to provide them with individualized interventions. Spouses and offspring present different needs and therefore interventions should be different.

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Abstract Background Satisfaction with life, affects, and subjective happiness in military personnel are significantly correlated, as the experience of positive emotions, such as pride and camaraderie, often improves both satisfaction with life and the perception of happiness. On the other hand, negative effects, such as stress and anxiety, derived from deployment in high-risk environments, can bring down these indicators of well-being. Adaptability and resilience play a crucial role in moderating these affects, allowing military personnel to keep a good degree of emotional balance. Objective The objective of this study was to measure satisfaction with life, subjective happiness, and affects on Spanish military personnel. The initial hypothesis was that these variables are correlated and that affects can be used to predict satisfaction with life and subjective happiness. Methods This study examined the mutual relationships between satisfaction with life, affects, and subjective happiness in a sample of 416 Spanish military personnel (336 men 80.67% and 80 women 19.23%), with an average age of 35.56 years, using the satisfaction with life, affects, and subjective happiness scales. Results The results indicate that all the variables analyzed are correlated and together constitute subjective well-being. Network analysis indicates that the axial factor in this relationship is subjective happiness. It was found that both positive and negative affects can be used to predict satisfaction with life and subjective happiness. Conclusion This paper emphasizes the need to conduct more studies with military personnel, who are usually exposed to high levels of professional stress, and that these consider a wider range of variables. Understanding these dynamics is essential to design measures that promote mental health and holistic well-being in this population group. This study is the first empirical approach to models that argue for the mutual interaction of these constructs in psychological well-being, also emphasizing the need to work with military personnel in this regard, not only during their training but throughout their military career.

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Abstract Background Autonomy is a core element in many established management theories, consistently linked to positive employee outcomes. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and rapid technological advancements have transformed workplace dynamics, particularly in the information technology (IT) sector in India, where hybrid work models have gained prominence. Despite this shift, no standardized measure exists to assess the autonomy experienced by employees in hybrid work environments, hindering deeper analysis and understanding. Objective This study aims to contextualize, develop, and validate the Autonomy in Hybrid Work Scale (AHWS) for the Indian context, providing a tool for researchers and practitioners to systematically examine the impact of autonomy in hybrid work. Methods A descriptive two-phase study was conducted following DeVellis's scale development framework. Phase 1 focused on conceptualizing and developing the construct through a comprehensive literature review, item generation, and assessment of content and face validity by experts, followed by a pilot test. Phase 2 encompassed the scale validation process, which included Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to identify the underlying factor structure and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to validate the model and assess its fit. Results The data collected from 313 IT employees working in Bengaluru, India, was analyzed to confirm data normality (below ± 2.58). The items showed a strong and positive correlation (r = .734) with the Work Design Questionnaire which indicated convergent validity. Discriminant validity was confirmed through Fornell-Larcker and Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) criteria, with HTMT values below 0.90. The final analysis yielded an 18-item scale with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.825, comprising four distinct dimensions: (a) work location autonomy, (b) work time autonomy, (c) work scheduling autonomy, and (d) work decision autonomy. Implications The AHWS offers a valuable tool for both managers and academics to assess how different forms of autonomy influence employee well-being and productivity in hybrid work settings. It also addresses a gap in the literature, providing a foundation for further empirical research on autonomy in hybrid work models.

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Abstract Background Empathy is an important psychological construct that plays a significant role in social interactions, mental health, and well-being. Despite the significance of empathy in psychological research and mental health, there is a lack of validated and concise measures available in Turkish. Objective This study aims to evaluate the psychometric properties of the eight-item Empathy Quotient (EQ-8) in Turkish university students, assessing its reliability, convergent validity, and factor structure. Therefore, we seek to determine its suitability for use in psychological and mental health research within Turkish-speaking populations. Methods We collected the data from two groups. The data of the first group (N = 198) was used to test the factor structure of the EQ-8 by randomly splitting the data into two halves. The first half was used for the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and the second half was used for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), while the second group (N = 47) was carried out to test the reliability of EQ-8. Results The results of the EFA and CFA yielded a one-factor solution for the EQ-8. The internal consistency reliability was found to be good in both subsamples. Test–retest reliability was established as.86. As to the convergent validity, the scores on EQ-8 were significantly positively related to the scores of the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire. Conclusions These results provide support for the Turkish version of the EQ-8 as a psychometrically sound instrument for measuring empathy. These results contribute to cross-cultural research and the evaluation of interventions targeting empathy.

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Abstract Background Women's mental health has emerged as a growing concern amid the COVID-19 as studies show women are more likely to suffer symptoms of depression and anxiety than men. Social and economic disadvantages are believed to correlate with women's mental health during the pandemic. However, studies mainly show the prevalence of mental health problems among women during COVID-19 across the globe while the covariates are not extensively reported. Moreover, the literature on mental health is believed to be overlooked in the developing countries. Objective This study aims to investigate women's mental health in Vietnam under the context of COVID-19. Methods This study used a novel data set from our survey of women located in five provinces and cities in Vietnam. The study sample included 519 observations. Women's mental health is measured by WHO-5 and OECD-7, these two inventories are designed to measure the subjective wellbeing of respondents. Our research utilized correlational analysis to explore the connections between women's mental wellbeing and their social and economic characteristics. Results Results indicate statistically significant associations between women's mental wellbeing and their personal characteristics such as education level, employment status, income, age, number of children, marital status, and household appliances. Conclusion Policymakers should prioritize policies to encourage women to upgrade their education and skills should receive more attention from policymakers, and attention should be particularly placed on women in the vulnerable age groups for the prevention or mitigation of psychological effects from social and economic shocks. As a preventive measure for mental health problems, it is essential to popularize knowledge on mental health and how to cope with the related issues. Also, nationwide data on people's mental health should be collected regularly to facilitate more studies to provide insights into mental health issues.

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Abstract Background The Metacognition Questionnaire, including the version adapted to adolescents, measures non-adaptive metacognition believes. This study measured the structure of the MCQ-A factor in adolescents, and its correlation with anxiety and emotional regulation. Objective The aim of this study was the adaptation and validation of the Spanish version of the questionnaire on metacognitive beliefs in adolescents with a sample of schoolchildren (N = 1031, age = 14.91 years). Methods Two studies were undertaken: (1) the translation of the MCQ-A scale into Spanish, including the evaluation of internal consistency, factorial structure, and convergent validity; and (2) the confirmatory factorial analysis of the questionnaire. Results Five factors were obtained: (1) positive beliefs about concerns; (2) negative beliefs about lack of control and concern risk; (3) cognitive confidence; (4) the need to control thoughts; and (5) cognitive self-awareness. The exploratory factorial analysis clearly showed that the MCQ-A scale factors present an aggregate variance of 53.42%, which explains the unique variation of metacognitive beliefs. For its part, confirmatory factorial analysis endorsed the suitability of the model, with a sustainable structure that comprise the five factors identified and 30 items. In addition, network analysis revealed that metacognitive beliefs and feature-anxiety are related. Conclusion The MCQ-A is easy to understand and fast to complete, so it is regarded as useful for the assessment of non-adaptive metacognitive beliefs in adolescents.

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Abstract Background Critical consciousness refers to the ability to recognize and analyze the oppressive forces in society and to act against them. Researchers have emphasized that sport has the potential to help athletes develop their critical consciousness regarding the forces that shape society, as well as the systems of privilege and deprivation that influence access to sport. Objective The present study describes the development of the critical consciousness in sport scale, offering initial validity evidence based on test content, internal structure, relations with other variables, and reliability. Methods An initial set of 50 items was develop and reviewed by expert judges who assessed the clarity, practical relevance, and theoretical adequacy of the items using the content validity coefficient (CVC). To investigate the internal structure of the CCSS, factor retention methods such as parallel analysis and exploratory graph analysis were employed, followed by an exploratory factor analysis (EFA), along with an assessment of the internal consistency of the factors. Validity evidence based on relations with other variables was estimated using Pearson correlations. The sample was comprised of 263 Brazilian psychology and physical education students (mean age: 26.95 ± 9.69; 70.02% women). Results Factor retention methods that included parallel analysis, exploratory graph analysis, and a categorical exploratory factor analysis demonstrated a three-dimensional structure comprised of 36 items, as theoretically hypothesized, with desirable internal consistency indices (ω = 0.868, 0.906, and 0.924, respectively). A brief version of the instrument is also presented, which adequately reproduced the psychometric properties of the initial version. Correlations with measurements of social justice and anti-racism efficacy suggested validity evidence based on relations with other variables. Conclusion The results suggest that the instrument is an appropriate measure of critical consciousness in sport. It is recommended that future efforts focus on estimating further validity evidence and reliability of the CCSS in diverse samples of athletes from different competitive levels, sports coaches, fans, and other key fgures within the sports context.

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Abstract Background Digital reading in a second language is a cognitively demanding task constrained, among other factors, by individuals’ working memory resources. Additionally, listening to music whilst reading might overload working memory. However, previous studies found mixed results regarding the effects of music in reading comprehension. Objective This study investigates the effects of working memory capacity on English as a second language digital reading comprehension in a multitasking setting. More specifically, it examines how working memory capacity influences the ability to recall text ideas (main ideas, secondary ideas, and details) after reading a digital text in a second language and simultaneously listening to music. Method The between-subject design study was conducted with sixty-five participants aged 19–62 years (M = 28.87; SD = 8.20) divided into two groups of Brazilian Portuguese-English proficient bilinguals, one reading while listening to lyrical music and the other reading while listening to non-lyrical music. Participants’working memory capacity was assessed using a Self-Applicable version of the Reading Span Test, and their reading comprehension of a second language digital text was assessed with a free-written recall. Participants also rated their proficiency in their L2. Results Findings suggest that individuals with higher working memory capacity are better at recalling secondary ideas and details, while no effect was observed in the recall of main ideas. Additionally, no difference between groups (lyrical vs non-lyrical) was observed. An exploratory complementary analysis indicates that readers who recall secondary ideas tend to better recall main ideas, so higher working memory capacity seems to enable the recall of secondary ideas in addition to main ideas. Conclusion This study contributes to understanding cognitive resource allocation in second language digital reading and the potential effects of multitasking on reading comprehension.

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Abstract Background Corruption, as a psychosocial problem, impacts institutional stability and interpersonal trust. From a psychological perspective, the study of this phenomenon has focused on analyzing corrupt behavior. However, empirical evidence on the measurement of corrupt behavior remains limited due to its covert nature. An alternative strategy is to assess corrupt intent, as it allows inferring behavioral patterns without resorting to direct observation of these acts. Objective The aim of this study was to construct and validate the Corrupt Intention Scale (CIS), taking the theory of planned behavior as a framework. Methods We conducted a multiple study with a total of 1, 488 Peruvian adults. Multivariate statistical techniques such as exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were used. Results We found that the CIS presented evidence of internal structure validity for a 12-item model grouped into three correlated factors. It showed measurement invariance with respect to sex, convergent validity and satisfactory reliability. Conclusion The CIS presents psychometric properties that support its use to measure corrupt intent, and can be used in evaluation, research and prevention contexts. In a global context where corruption remains a critical challenge, reliable and valid measures strengthen the basis for future research and mitigation programs.

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Abstract Background In South Korea, there are many situations that can threaten financial well-being, a factor that has been known to affect both mental and physical health. However, there has so far not been an instrument to measure an individual’s subjective financial well-being. Objective This study aims to adapt the Korean version of the Personal Financial Wellness (PFW) scale. Methods The Korean version of the PFW scale was evaluated with 2,044 adults who participated in an online survey in South Korea. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the factor structure of the PFW scale. Its validity was assessed by examining factor loadings, average variances extracted (AVE), and conceptual reliability (CR). In addition, the relationships between the PFW scale and the scales measuring theoretically relevant constructs were analyzed. Reliability was examined using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, the corrected item-to-total correlation, the inter-item correlation, and McDonald’s omega. Results The evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Korean version of the PFW scale indicates that it exhibits a single-factor structure, consistent with the English version. Factor loadings, AVE, and CR all exceeded the recommended thresholds. The model also demonstrated consistent fit indices regardless of the subsample. Invariance of both configurai and factor loadings was established across gender, while invariance of configurai, factor loadings, and intercepts was confirmed across regions. Additionally, the PFW scale, a subjective measure of financial well-being, is more strongly related to health-related variables than monthly income, which is an objective indicator of financial well-being. Internal consistency reliability for the Korean version of the PFW scale was found to be satisfactory. Conclusions The adaptation of the Korean version of the PFW scale provides a valuable instrument for researchers and practitioners in South Korea, where an instrument measuring an individual’s subjective financial well-being does not exist.

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Abstract Background Fighting racial discrimination requires the ability to notice it when it occurs. Objective The present study aimed to investigate the perception of racial discrimination in a sample of Brazilian school-aged children. Method Fifty-three 6- to 12-year-old children were recruited from two public schools in a small town in the state of São Paulo, but there was no registration of the ethnic background of one child and, as a result, he had to be excluded. Therefore, the final sample consisted of 52 participants (10 black, 32 mixed-race, 10 white). A task designed to assess children’s perception of racial discrimination and used in previous studies was translated into Brazilian Portuguese and administered to participants. Children watched four videos of stories about an adult character who made a choice between a black child and a white child in different scenarios) (e.g., choosing a class leader, a student to represent the school in a science fair, a winner for the music contest and someone to complete the soccer team), with the choice always benefiting one over the other. Children were distributed into three conditions that varied in terms of whether racial discrimination was present or not. Two situational cues were manipulated: the skin color of the potential target of discrimination and information about the adult character’s past choices. At the end of each story, participants had to answer a question about the reasons for the choice made. Results A significant effect of age was found on the PD task, but only for one condition (C1) when there was a pattern of apparent racial discrimination and when situational cues were provided, U = 21.0, p = .006. A D-prime analysis revealed that children were good at rejecting the existence of discrimination when it was not present; but they performed poorly when it was present, d′ = – 0.44. Conclusion These findings point to an important question regarding the when and how Brazilian parents and educators talk to children about ethnic-racial relations. This is an important future direction, and it can better inform intervention programs and public policy directed at preventing and fighting racism in our country.

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Abstract Background The number of non-religious people in the world has increased, which justifes the development and validation of good instruments to assess secularism, i.e., the absence of religiosity and spirituality. Objective The present study aimed to develop a cross-cultural adaptation and search for evidence of the validity of the nonreligious-nonspiritual scale (NRNSS). Methods For a congruent scale translation, a cross-cultural adaptation was performed. The search for evidence of validity was carried out through the following steps: (1) evidence of validity based on the internal structure, where an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were performed, and the internal consistency was verified of the factors obtained; (2) evidence of validity based on converging relationships with external measurements, where correlations were made between the NRNSS factors and the Brazilian Portuguese version of the Duke Religiosity Index (P-DUREL) and the World Health Organization’s Quality of Life Instrument-Spirituality, Religion and Personal Beliefs module (WHOQOL-SRPB); and (3) comparison of self-identification categories with NRNSS outcomes using two one-way ANOVA tests, comparing scale scores between different groups (e.g., atheists, agnostics, spiritualists, and religious people). The data collection process took place through a link shared on social networks allowing access to the structured questionnaire. Results The present study obtained the following results: (1) the EFA supported a one-factor model for the scale, but (2) the CFA presented satisfactory indices for the the model composed of two factors, non-religiosity (NR) and non-spirituality (NS); (3) internal consistency indices greater than 0.95 were obtained in all factors indicated in both tested models; (4) all analyzed correlations obtained results as expected, indicating that the scale actually measures the proposed constructs; and (5) decreasing levels of NR and NS were obtained according to the respective beliefs: atheists, agnostics, spiritualists, and religious people. Conclusion The NRNSS presented favorable psychometric properties, enabling it to be used with two different factors (NR and NS).

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Abstract Background Phonological working memory has been known as an essential predictor of reading comprehension in children. However, less attention has been paid to processing speed and its interaction with working memory. Main body Research has indicated that higher processing speed of linguistic information contributes to greater availability of memory resources used to comprehend a read text. Objective We tested, using simple mediation models, whether phonological working memory can predict inferential reading comprehension when mediated by linguistic processing speed. Methods To do this, we analyzed information from a database on the assessment of phonological memory (digit span Backward and Forward task), language processing speed (Verbal Fluency and Rapid Automated Naming) and inferential reading comprehension of 66 typical 5th grade students. Results Both phonological working memory and cognitive-linguistic information processing speed were able to predict the inferential reading comprehension of students in the 5th year of elementary school. The mediation analysis showed that rapid automatized naming and working memory (digit span Backward and Forward Task) together, but independently, were able to predict inferential reading comprehension. Conclusion When measured by semantic verbal fluency, linguistic processing speed mediated the prediction of phonological working memory (digits in Forward and Backward order) in inferential reading comprehension.

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Abstract Background Suicide among university students is a growing public health concern, particularly in low-and middle-income countries. The university setting presents unique challenges and opportunities for implementing effective suicide prevention strategies. Despite the availability of various interventions, these efforts often fail to address the contextual and systemic factors that influence their success. Objective Investigate the elements that can support implementing actions to prevent suicide among university students. Using interviews, focus groups, and questionnaires, the study was conducted at a university in the North of Brazil. Participants These are 20 undergraduate students, 12 undergraduate course coordinators, 6 technical-administrative staff, and 12 health professionals. Method Thematic analysis and the context and implementation of complex interventions (CICI) model were used to analyze the data. Results Thematic analysis revealed that political and socioeconomic contexts—such as underfunded mental health services, lack of institutional coordination, and limited financial aid—were critical barriers. Key facilitators included social participation, teacher-student relationships, and actions that promote a welcoming university environment. Implementation concerns included the risk of stigmatization and the need for role clarity among university staff. Stakeholders proposed a range of interventions distributed across ecological, proactive, early, and crisis zones, emphasizing the need for mental health promotion, intersectoral collaboration, and collective program design. Conclusions Effective suicide prevention in universities requires a systemic approach that addresses prevention and treatment actions of suicidality. By leveraging the insights of multiple stakeholders and applying context-sensitive frameworks, universities can implement sustainable interventions. This study provides a road map for advancing suicide prevention efforts and illustrates ongoing and comprehensive actions to promote the mental health of university students.

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Abstract Introduction Pseudoisochromatic stimuli are widely used in psychophysical color vision testing and the features of the luminance noise present on these stimuli have been reported modifying the psychophysical chromatic discrimination. Objective The present study investigated how modifications in the luminance noise features (luminance contrast and number of luminance values) affect chromatic visual evoked cortical potentials (VECP) elicited by pseudoisochromatic gratings, aiming to evaluate the influence of luminance contrast and the number of luminance values in the pseudoisochromatic stimulus on the chromatic VECP. Methods The sample consisted of seven young trichromatic participants. The waveforms of the visual evoked cortical potentials (VECP) were analyzed, focusing on the P1, N1, and P2 components across all stimulus conditions. The luminance noise contrast in the pseudoisochromatic stimulus had distinct effects on the amplitudes of the VECP components. Significant effects were observed for the amplitudes of the P1 (p = 0.01) and P2 (p = 0.04) components, while no significant effect was found on the amplitude of the N1 component (p = 0.3). Results There was no significant effect of the luminance noise range on the latency of the VECP components (P1 VECP component, p = 0.54; N1 VECP component, p = 0.79; P2 VECP component, p = 0.49). The number of luminance values in the noise had no significant effect on VECP components amplitude and latency. Different manipulations of luminance noise influenced P1 and P2 VECP components and no modification of the luminance noise had influence on the main chromatic VECP component, N1 component. Conclusion Manipulations in features of the luminance noise in pseudoisocrhomatic stimulus impacted in putative luminance components, but not chromatic components, of visual evoked potentials. The present findings may have potential applications in clinical neuro-ophthalmology, particularly for assessing congenital and acquired color blindness.

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Abstract Background The COVID-19 pandemic presented challenges for mental health providers all over the world, since they had to abruptly change from in person assistance to remote meetings. The adverse effects from social isolation were critical in Latinx populations such as Brazil and Mexico, since these countries faced a great amount of social, health, and economic burden during the pandemic, which affected families’ access to care and increased inappropriate parenting practices. Objective This study aimed to understand the impacts of adapting parenting interventions to online sessions for Brazilian and Mexican providers, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods Sixty-two Brazilian and 49 Mexican mental health care providers that worked with parenting interventions (including psychologists, social workers, occupational therapists, counselors, and others) took part in this study. The measures included two standardized questionnaires (the Questionnaire about Acceptability, Feasibility and Appropriateness ofTelehealth, and the Epidemic-Pandemic Impact Inventory), demographic data, and complementary items developed specially for this study. All measures were translated from English to Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish, resulting in five sets of themes related to (a) service delivery, (b) barriers to mental health assistance, (c) acceptability, feasibility and appropriateness of telehealth, and (d) impacts of pandemic on providers’ professional and personal lives. Results For all participants, adapting to online sessions presented challenges related to technology issues, time management, less healthy habits, and overload of chores between work and home tasks, besides concerns related to confidentiality and privacy. Kruskal-Wallis Rank Sum Tests revealed that Mexican providers reported less barriers regarding technology, while Brazilian providers mentioned less economic impact. Conclusion This study describes a comparison between providers of two Latinx countries facing demands from COVID19 pandemic, showing common challenges and specific barriers. Suggestions are presented in order to improve the experience of telehealth (i.e., tailored sessions, guidelines for families that ensure privacy, and policies that can increase telehealth access for vulnerable populations).

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Abstract Objective The aim of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Dating Violence Questionnaire for Victimization and Perpetration (DVQ-VP) in a sample of the Ecuadorian population. Methods The study included 819 participants (47% men and 53% women), consisting of Ecuadorian adolescents and university students. An instrumental design was employed for the linguistic adaptation, reliability, and convergent (AVE), discriminant (HTMT), and structural (CFI, TLI, and RMSEA) validation of the DVQ-VP. The construct validity and internal consistency of the instrument were assessed. Construct validity was analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), while internal consistency was evaluated using ordinal Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega coefficients. Additionally, a network analysis was conducted with the DVQ-VP items. Results The CFA results indicated that the DVQ-VP has a factorial structure consistent with the original theoretical model, with adequate fit indices (CFI > 990, TLI > 990, and RMSEA < 0.08 in both models of the DVQ-VP). The Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega values for the victimization and perpetration subscales were above .70, indicating good internal consistency. Additionally, the instrument proved to be sensitive in identifying different forms of dating violence. Conclusion The findings support that the DVQ-VP demonstrated adequate levels of validity and reliability for assessing dating violence in a sample of Ecuadorian adolescents and university students. These results suggest that, within this specific context and population, the instrument can be a useful tool for identifying patterns of victimization and perpetration in dating relationships. Its application may contribute to early detection and the development of targeted interventions to reduce intimate partner violence among young people.

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Abstract Background The Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation (CORE) system is widely used to assess psychological well-being and clinical symptoms across various settings, but most studies on its psychometric properties have focused on clinical populations and the 34-item version, leaving a gap in understanding the performance of shorter versions and its applicability in non-help-seeking samples. Objective This study investigates the acceptability, reliability, and score distributions of various forms within the CORE system among a non-help-seeking Spanish population. Methods Data from 1667 participants were analyzed, with a mean age of 37.16 years and a predominance of women (59.1%). The majority had higher education (53.1%), and over half were employed at the time of the study. Results Acceptability was high, with low item omission rates (<0.1%) across all forms during both initial and retest assessments. Internal consistency was strong, with Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s Omega exceeding 0.80 for all forms. Test-retest reliability showed correlations above 0.59 for all scores, with no significant differences between assessment intervals. Score distributions were compared by gender, age, and education, revealing significant differences between gender and education but not for age. Conclusion The study provides key reference data for the CORE system in Spain, supporting outcome comparisons in non-help-seeking samples. Despite an overrepresentation of highly educated individuals, it offers crucial insights into its psychometric properties and score distributions. The findings highlight potential applications of these distributions and underscore the need for further research into the psychometric performance of individual CORE forms.

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Abstract Background The measurements of metacognition through performance-based tasks are better predictors of academic performance than those based on self-report tests, but evidence on the prediction of academic performance by standardized performance-based metacognition tests is scarce. The reason is that there are few tests of this nature with psychometric evidence of validity and reliability. Only a single study with Honduran university students compared the prediction of academic performance by a standardized performance-based test, and a self-report test in which both measure cognition regulation, a metacognitive construct. The results indicated that only the standardized performance-based test predicts academic performance, and the measures of these tests are not correlated. Objective Two hypotheses are investigated in this article: (1) performance-based metacognitive tests predict academic performance better than self-report metacognitive tests; (2) there is a null correlation between measures of cognition regulation from performance-based standardized tests and self-report tests. Method A sample of 264 university students and graduates from Brazil, with an average age of 21.1 years, is used in the study. The majority are female, from private institutions, and enrolled in humanities and social sciences courses. The Meta-Text was used as the standardized performance-based test, and the self-report test was the Metacognitive Self-Regulation Scale of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). The predictors were cognition regulation, measured by both tests, and judgment, measured by the Meta-Text. The outcome was the overall score on the National High School Exam, a large-scale educational assessment for university admission. Results Only the regulation of cognition measured by Meta-Text predicts academic performance (β = 0.47, CI 95% [0.36, 0.58]). The correlations between the test measures were null (r = .002, p = .974). Conclusion The evidence corroborated both hypotheses and raises doubts about the quality of self-report tests for measuring cognition regulation. It also indicates that standardized performance-based tests have a similar predictive capacity to tasks that require performance. This result is promising because standardized tests are easy to apply and correct, allowing studies to be carried out on large samples, while performance-based tasks require a complex process, only feasible in studies on small samples.

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Abstract Background Problematic social media use has been linked to increased loneliness among university students, yet the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. Objective The study examines the mediating roles of self-esteem and positive childhood experiences in the relationship between problematic social media use and loneliness among university students. Methods A total of 464 university students aged 18 to 28 years (M = 22.71, SD = 2.71 ; 58% women) participated in the study. Data were collected via an online survey using standardized measures of positive childhood experiences, social media addiction, self-esteem, and loneliness. Results The findings revealed a significant positive relationship between problematic social media use and loneliness, as well as significant negative associations between problematic social media use and both self-esteem and positive childhood experiences. Mediation analyses indicated that problematic social media use significantly predicted loneliness, accounting for 6% of its variance, while the combined influence of problematic social media use, self-esteem, and positive childhood experiences explained 37% of the variance in loneliness. Notably, both selfesteem and positive childhood experiences partially mediated the relationship between problematic social media use and loneliness. Conclusion This study provides important evidence for designing and implementing interventions that aim to enhance self-esteem and foster positive childhood experiences to mitigate the negative effects of problematic social media use on loneliness.

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Abstract Introduction Food addiction is characterized by repeated and uncontrolled consumption of food, usually ultra-processed foods. Objective To investigate the impact of sociodemographic, health, lifestyle, and dietary factors on food addiction symptoms. Methods A total of 512 university students (both sexes, aged between 18 and 35 years) provided information on completion that included the variables include family income, physical activity, psychiatric and physical disorders, and alcohol, drug, and tobacco use. They also shared dietary information such as main meal types and whether they added salt to food. Food addiction symptoms were assessed using the Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0. We used a multiple linear regression model was used to investigate predicted changes in the number of food addiction symptoms. Results The model hadshowed an adjusted R² adjusted of 0.167 (and p < 0.001). Female sex (B = 0.506; p = < 0.,0401), low family income (from low to moderate: B = -0.803, p = 0.,002; and from low to high: B = -0.732, p = 0.024), physical (p = 0,046) and psychiatric disorders (B = 1.062, p < = 0.001,08), practice of physical activity (B = -0.682, p = 0.009) and be in current dieting (B = 1.498, p < 0.001) predicted morea use of tobacco and derivatives (p = 0,020) food addiction symptoms. (p = 0,018) (p = 0,025) consumes less than five meals a day (p < 0,001). Conclusion Food addiction symptoms were found to be a multifactorial phenomenon, associated with sociodemo-graphic and economic status, diet, exercise, and mental health. The limitations of this study of this study includewere its cross-sectional design, lack ofno dietary consumption data, sample convenience sampling-based, self-selection bias, and simplification ed collection of dietary concerns.

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Abstract Introduction Academic misconduct remains a pervasive issue in higher education institutions, undermining both academic integrity and the quality of the educational environment. Existing research primarily focuses on describing the forms and frequency of violations. Objective This study evaluated the effectiveness of an educational intervention designed to modify students’ attitudes and behaviors regarding academic integrity. Methods The study implemented a controlled experimental design with pre-test and post-test measurements. The participants were 400 undergraduate students from a Chinese university (202 males and 198 females, mean age = 21 years), who were assigned to either an experimental or control group. The six-month intervention was an educational program comprising lectures, role-playing exercises, discussions, and interactive workshops. The scale of academic dishonesty developed by Rawwas and Isakson was used to measure aspects such as acceptance of cheating, unfair advantages, data fabrication, and disregard for dishonest practices. Results The analysis revealed statistically significant improvements across all categories among students in the experimental group after completing the program. No significant changes were observed in the control group. Conclusion The findings confirm the efficacy of structured educational programs in reducing the propensity for academic misconduct. This study provides empirical evidence useful for universities seeking to implement ethical standards and foster a culture of academic integrity.

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Abstract Background Academic procrastination, defined as the intentional delay of important tasks, is a frequent phenomenon among university students and is associated with low performance, stress, and anxiety. The Tuckman Academic Procrastination Scale (TPS) is a widely used psychometric tool to assess this behavior. Although it has been validated in several countries, there is no empirical evidence regarding its validity and reliability in the Ecuadorian context, which limits its use for assessment and intervention. Objective To psychometrically validate the Ecuadorian version of the TPS (TPS-E) in university students, assessing its factor structure, reliability, and cultural adequacy for measuring academic procrastination. Methods An instrumental design was used with a non-probabilistic sample of 1,007 students (39.9% women; Mage = 21.88; SD = 3.69) from a private Ecuadorian university. The Spanish adaptation (Argentinean) was linguistically reviewed and applied using a 16-item Likert-type scale. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with the DWLS estimator on a polychoric correlation matrix was conducted, evaluating CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR indices. Internal consistency was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega. Results The initial unidimensional model (16 items) showed acceptable fit (CFI = 0.975; RMSEA = 0.078; SRMR = 0.061), but item 16 presented a very low factor loading (0.050; p = 0.231). After removing it, the 15-item model showed improved fit (CFI = 0.980; RMSEA = 0.055; SRMR = 0.057) and all factor loadings exceeded 0.500, except for item 7 (0.084; p = 0.033), which was retained for theoretical relevance. Internal consistency was high (α = 0.87; ω = 0.88; CR = 0.89; AVE = 0.62). Conclusion The 15-item TPS-E showed adequate psychometric properties in Ecuadorian university students, being a reliable and valid instrument for assessing academic procrastination in this context. Its use in research and intervention is recommended, and future adaptations should explore convergent validity and potential cultural differences affecting specific items.

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Abstract Background Given the fact that grandparents share the responsibility for child-rearing in contemporary China, limited research has explored the relationship between grandparents’ involvement and grandchildren’s resilience in the three-generation family (a child lives with parents and one or more grandparents). The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between grandparents’ involvement and young children’s resilience, as well as the mediating roles of mother’s parenting stress and family strength in this association. Methods The study surveyed 919 mothers of children aged 3–5 years in Chinese three-generation families to report their children’s resilience, grandparents’ involvement, mother’s parenting stress, and family strengths. Results The findings revealed a positive association between grandparents’ involvement and young children’s resilience. This relationship was partially mediated by mother’s parenting stress and family strengths independently, as well as sequentially through the pathway from mother’s parenting stress to family strengths. Conclusions Grandparents’ involvement may help to relieve perceived mother’s parenting stress and enhance family strengths, thereby, indirectly affect young children’s resilience. These findings highlight the potential positive impact of grandparents’ involvement on young children’s resilience and offer a novel perspective for family counseling.

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Abstract Background The increasing proportion of older adults globally poses challenges to mental well-being, as aging is often accompanied by a decline in positive emotional experiences (PEE) and life satisfaction (LS). While previous studies have explored the relationship between basic psychological needs satisfaction (BPNS) and mental health in older adults, the role of life satisfaction as a mediating factor in the relationship between BPNS and daily emotional well-being remains underexplored. Objective This study aims to investigate the relationship between BPNS and PEE among older adults and to examine the mediating role of LS. By employing the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) through a mobile application, the study provides real-time data on the emotional experiences of older adults. Methods The study recruited 33 older adults (mean age = 63.24 years, SD = 5.92) who reported their daily emotional states through a mobile application three times a day for nine days. A total of 811 valid records were collected. Positive emotional experiences were assessed at the experience level, while BPNS and LS were assessed at the individual level. Data were analyzed using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) to examine the mediating effect of LS between BPNS and PEE. Results Results revealed that LS significantly mediated the relationship between BPNS and PEE. Older adults with higher BPNS reported higher LS, which in turn enhanced their daily PEE. This finding supports the hypothesis that BPNS positively influences PEE through improved LS. Implications The study highlights the importance of fostering BPNS to improve LS and daily positive emotions among older adults. The use of mobile applications to capture dynamic emotional states offers a practical and scalable approach for psychological research, particularly in aging populations. Further interventions could focus on enhancing BPNS to promote emotional well-being in older adults.

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Abstract Background The intimate partner violence (IPV) among lesbian women is an invisible problem in Brazil due to discrimination and social stigma. Most national studies focus on understanding violence in relationships between women and men, leaving a gap in research addressing this type of violence and its consequences for lesbian women. This study aims to identify the main types of IPV experienced by Brazilian lesbian women, compare mental health indicators, perceptions of social support, and minority stress levels between lesbian women with and without a history of IPV, and examine predictors of victimization in intimate relationships. Methods Descriptive analyses, t-tests, and logistic regression analyses were performed. A total of 550 lesbian women participated, with a mean age of 25.31 years old (SD = 5.83). Results Women with a history of IPV have worse mental health outcomes and lower perceptions of social support networks. In addition, concealment of sexuality, experiences of stigma, age, and social support were identified as predictors of IPV. Conclusion The findings of this study highlight how IPV can further jeopardize the mental health of Brazilian lesbian women, exacerbating symptoms of stress, depression, and anxiety. Discriminatory and stigmatizing acts amplify the effects of IPV, as violence is perpetrated on both social and individual levels.

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Abstract Background This study validates the Spanish version of the Brief-COPE in the Colombian context. This tool assesses 14 different coping strategies, including positive coping, planning, emotional support, instrumental support, substance use, and religion, among others. The structural validations of this tool in Latin America, Europe, North America, and Asia yielded heterogeneous results, with validations in Latin America often having limitations in their data analysis methodologies and sample size. This study aims to address these limitations and provide methodologically sound evidence on the structural validity, reliability, and convergent and divergent validity of the instrument for adults in Colombia. Methods A total of 762 participants completed the Brief-COPE along with the ERQ, the Wellbeing Index, the HSCL-25, the PCL-C, and the Kessler 6. Categorical Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was employed to assess the fit of 12 different theory and data-driven models. After identifying the best-fitting model, reliability, divergent, and convergent validity were assessed for the resulting factors. Results The best-fitting CFA model for the Brief-COPE had 11 factors: active coping, social support, acceptance, venting, self-distraction, behavioral disengagement, denial, self-blame, humor, religion, and substance use. Substance use, active coping, religion, social support, humor, self-blame, denial, and behavioral disengagement demonstrated good reliability (Omega > = .7), whereas the remaining subscales demonstrated insufficient reliability (Omega > .6 and Omega < .7). Maladaptive coping strategies were found to positively correlate with distress measures, while adaptive strategies exhibited negative correlations, as expected. However, social support and humor presented significant positive associations with PCL-C and HSCL. Conclusions This study provides evidence supporting an 11-factor structure for the Brief-COPE in Colombian adults, with most factors demonstrating satisfactory reliability. Researchers should use caution when interpreting subscales with lower reliability. The results also underscore the influence of cultural context on coping patterns, given the heterogeneous factor structures found in other validations. Future studies should recruit more diverse samples to enhance generalizability and further investigate the predictive validity of this adapted tool.

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Abstract Background One of the main developmental tasks in adolescence is preparing for adult roles, especially those related to work and family life, a process that is guided by future expectations that influence goal setting, planning, and behaviors adopted during this transition phase. However, adolescents living in situations of social vulnerability faced increased risks during the COVID-19 pandemic while having limited access to reliable information, compromising their future expectations and life projects. Objective This study investigated the relationship between exposure to COVID-19-related risks, knowledge regarding prevention and transmission, and the commitment to life projects (LP) among adolescents in diverse vulnerable contexts. Methods A total of 107 Brazilian adolescents from child protection institutions, public schools in high-risk areas, juvenile justice facilities, and services for homeless youth participated in the study. They completed the COVID-19 Exposure and Demographic Questionnaire, the Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices towards COVID-19 Questionnaire, and the Life Project Scale. Data were analyzed using latent profile analysis and moderation models. Results Participants showed above-average exposure to COVID-19 compared to the general population and reported high levels of disbelief in vaccine efficacy. Life project engagement was heterogeneous across the sample, with three latent profiles identified. Greater knowledge about COVID-19 was positively associated with LP engagement, particularly among those who had lost a family member to the virus. Conclusion Ensuring access to reliable information and psychosocial support is essential for fostering both engagement and continuity in life projects among vulnerable adolescents during health crises.

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Abstract Background Public safety professionals are frequently exposed to unique stressors and traumas in their work, which can have significant impacts on their mental well-being. However, the stigma surrounding mental health within their professional circles often deters them from seeking help when necessary. Understanding the nature and extent of this stigma is essential for developing targeted interventions to overcome barriers to help-seeking. Objective This study aims to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Perception of Stigmatization by Others for Seeking Help Scale (PSOSH) and the Self-Stigma of Seeking Help Scale (SSOSH) among public safety professionals. Method A total of 11,335 public safety agents from various organizations across all federal units of Brazil participated in the study, completing the PSOSH, SSOSH, and a sociodemographic questionnaire. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, as well as item response theory’s graded response model, were conducted to examine the psychometric properties of the measures. Results The validity evidence suggests one-factor structures for both instruments, with acceptable reliability coefficients. While the PSOSH demonstrated adequate psychometric properties, including good factor loadings, communalities, fit indices, reliability coefficients, and discrimination and difficulty parameters, the SSOSH yielded some results that raise questions about its psychometric properties. Conclusion The PSOSH exhibits satisfactory psychometric quality for application in public safety contexts in Brazil. However, further investigation is needed to establish the psychometric parameters of the SSOSH more robustly.

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Abstract Background Positive development in sports (PDS) is a theoretical framework emphasizing human potential development in sports participation. Despite theoretical advancements, operationalizing PDS remains challenging, given the scarcity of instruments that translate theoretical models into practical applications in sports. Objective This systematic review aimed to identify measurement instruments for assessing positive development in sports, their theoretical foundations, and validity evidence supporting their use. Methods This study follows COSMIN guidelines and includes a comprehensive search across MEDLINE, PubMed PMC, PsycINFO, AgeLine, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. The search strategy refined with expert input yielded 702 records, with 41 meeting inclusion criteria (i.e., peer-reviewed original studies focused on the development, adaptation, or validation of measurement instruments assessing positive development in sports or related constructs). Screening was performed by two researchers in a double-blind process, with conflicts resolved by a third researcher. Data extracted included sample characteristics, theoretical underpinnings, and psychometric properties. Results Most instruments were grounded in Positive Youth Development theories and Basic Psychological Needs. Internal structure validity and internal consistency were the primary types of evidence reported, with Cronbach’s alpha widely used. Despite recognition that human potential can be developed across the lifespan, instruments primarily targeted youth in sports contexts, with limited tools for older cohorts, revealing a significant gap. Most instruments originated in high-income countries, such as those in North America and Europe, underscoring the need for adaptations of theories and tools for low- and middle-income regions. Conclusions Underrepresentation of diverse populations with regards to race, ethnicity, and gender, absence of interpretative norms, and limited focus on older cohorts were critical limitations. Addressing these gaps can enhance PDS instruments’ inclusivity and applicability, ultimately fostering more inclusive and impactful sports practices. Furthermore, the results indicate the need to develop instruments rooted in robust PDS theoretical models alongside theoretical revisions to better represent diverse populations and people from middle- and low-income countries, in addition to the adequate adaptation of instruments.