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Original article • Cad. Metropole 28 (66) • May-Aug 2026 • https://doi.org/10.1590/2236-9996.2026-6672215-en linkcopy

Open-access Older adults’ perception of discrimination episodes in public transportation

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Abstract

Urban mobility is essential for quality of life. Public transportation is an important means of access to the city; however, older adults face challenges ranging from mobility to discrimination. This study analyzed older adults’ perception of discrimination episodes experienced on buses. Data were collected in 2022 through interviews with 109 passengers in the Federal District and surrounding area, who completed questionnaires addressing demographic information and discrimination experiences. All forms of discrimination examined in this study were experienced by more than 10% of respondents. Significant correlations were found between certain discrimination episodes and demographic factors such as gender, age, level of schooling, living alone, and distance from the bus stop to the residence. Actions to combat ageism and adapt transportation systems to promote inclusive urban mobility are urgently needed.

Keywords:
aging; ageism; mobility; urban public transportation; discrimination

Resumo

A mobilidade urbana é essencial à qualidade de vida. Um importante meio de acesso à cidade é o transporte público, onde pessoas idosas vivenciam desafios desde locomoção até discriminação. Este estudo analisou a percepção de pessoas idosas sobre episódios de discriminação vivenciados nos ônibus. Por meio de entrevista realizada em 2022, 109 passageiros do Distrito Federal e entorno responderam a instrumentos sobre dados sociodemográficos e experiências de discriminação. Todas as formas de discriminação investigadas foram vivenciadas por mais de 10% da amostra. Gênero, idade, escolaridade, morar sozinho e distância do ponto de ônibus até a residência se relacionaram com alguns episódios de discriminação. São urgentes ações contra o idadismo e adaptações no sistema de transporte para uma mobilidade urbana inclusiva.

Palavras-chave:
envelhecimento; idadismo; mobilidade; transporte público urbano; discriminação

Introduction

A lack of understanding of the normative alterations caused by ageing has resulted in misconceptions between what is expected for old age and its associated ailments. For instance, it is common for people to suffer bone density reduction, increasing the risk of fractures; muscle strength diminishing in lower limbs which limit functional mobility; and slowing of postural responses which harm the capacity to integrate sensorial information. Hearing and eyesight issues may also be present in old age and affect the health, well-being and quality of life of older adult individuals (Garrido et al., 2023). There is still more of a reduction in the cognitive capacity than in other phases of life; in addition, lower schooling levels are more common among older Brazilian adults (Custódio, Malaquias Junior and Voos, 2010). Some diseases and conditions present in old age are therefore not visible and hardly perceived by surrounding people. Thus, older adults may also face stigma or doubt about the legitimacy of their condition (Avci e Erhan, 2022).

The changes presented may limit the everyday activities of older adults and intensify age-related prejudice, also known as ageism (Santana et al., 2024; Teixeira, Souza and Maia, 2018), which is a form of prejudice that is little studied compared to others in existence (Silva, Souza and Aires, 2022; Teixeira et al., 2024). It has an insidious quality which sets it apart from other forms of discrimination (Couto et al., 2009; Levy and Banaji, 2002), and manifests in an unconscious, implicit form without control or declared intention to cause harm.

Prejudice (affective/evaluative dimension of attitude) and discrimination (behavioral dimension of attitude) impact society directly. Having age as its object, they contribute to disregard towards ageing and towards older adult individuals (Silva, Souza and Aires, 2022). However, it bears emphasizing that ageism is not a phenomenon directly related to older adults; negative attitudes regarding the young has also been reported. However, the older adult population is more vulnerable to ageism (ibid.). According to Bolkan, Teaster and Ramsey-Klawsnik (2023), researchers, policy writers, social service providers, healthcare professionals and professionals of other areas pay less attention to violence experienced by older adults than to that experienced by people of other age ranges.

Ageism can be considered a form of hidden violence and, in certain situations, accepted by society and even by older adults themselves (Berzins and Watanabe, 2005). Among the aspects associated with ageism are lack of social support, the isolation of victims, and previous exposure to traumatic events. While social isolation is a risk factor, social contact, especially healthy social interactions, are protective, providing emotional comfort and access to information, and can reduce other risk factors (Günther, 2009).

In this regard, it is essential to consider the city as a context which can either foster social interactions or become an obstacle to them. Therefore, urban environments must be designed to facilitate accessibility and mobility for older adults, ensuring that their autonomy and social contact are maintained.

The World Health Organization (WHO) created a guide for age-friendly cities, providing guidance so that city structures and services are inclusive and accessible to older adults with different needs and capabilities (WHO, 2008). Specifically concerning public transportation, the document states that it should be accessible and affordable, enabling movement within the city and consequently promoting social and civic participation and access to community and health services. Transportation should be adapted without the presence of high steps, with access to priority seating and spaces for wheelchairs, offering conditions of comfort and safety for older adults. There are also recommendations regarding driver training, encouraging kindness and attention toward them. Overcrowded buses, stops far from the roadway, and a lack of benches for older adults to wait for transportation also constitute accessibility barriers.

Dias and Serra (2018) argue that public transportation is an important instrument of social justice, as it enables effective management of urban growth and promotes more equitable access to employment, culture, and leisure opportunities in cities. It therefore amplifies accessibility to urban opportunities (Siltanen et al., 2021).

Nevertheless, age is a factor which negatively influences mobility (Iwarsson and Ståhl, 2003; Svensson, 2003). External factors related to transportation, such as walking distances, seat availability on buses, the possibility of traveling independently, and the type of vehicle used have an even greater impact on older adults with reduced mobility. Consequently, reducing the number of outings and trips becomes one of the strategies adopted by older adults to cope with these and other factors, such as living in areas with various physical barriers (Henrique, 2023).

In a study conducted in the Federal District (DF) in Brazil and its surrounding areas, Góes et al. (2008) identified that bus drivers did not stop for 86.3% of older adult passengers surveyed when they signaled to disembark, among other findings. Furthermore, 78% of these participants stated that younger passengers do not give up their seats to older adults, and 75% considered that drivers ignore older adults signaling at bus stops. These and other experiences reported by older adult passengers highlight the need for more careful intervention by the State, which should review gaps in legislation aimed at this segment of the population and oversee companies to ensure its application (ibid.). The authors suggest implementing educational campaigns inside buses to raise awareness among the companies providing the service and other users of urban public transportation, among other measures.

In Rio Claro/SP, Scopinho (2013) surveyed 33 older adults who regularly used public transportation. The interviewees reported problems related to the physical characteristics of vehicles, driver behavior, and aspects of municipal management, such as the absence of seats and shelters at bus stops and poor signage. The challenges experienced by the participants highlight a violation of older adult passenger rights, which is possible and necessary to correct (ibid.).

This study was developed considering the increase in the older adult population at the national level, where 15.6% of Brazilians are 60 years or older, and 8.8% of the population in the DF, the third-largest state capital city in Brazil, is 65 years or older (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística – Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, 2023), and due to the possibility of the transportation sector contributing to the active aging of the population. Its objective was to investigate the perception of older adults regarding discrimination episodes experienced in the urban public transportation of the DF and its surrounding areas, a phenomenon still scarcely scientifically investigated in this context. It specifically aimed to relate perceived discrimination episodes with: gender, age, color/race, marital status, education level, number of people in the household, frequency of public transportation use, and travel time between residence and the bus stop.

Method

This is a quantitative, exploratory, cross- -sectional study conducted with older adult passengers of public transportation in the DF and its surroundings. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee (CEP) of the Universidade Católica de Brasília under opinion n. 5144.945.

Participants

This study included individuals aged 60 or older, the age marker for considering a person as an older adult in Brazil (Brasil, 2003), without significant speech or hearing impairment, residing in the DF or its surrounding areas, approached at the Plano Piloto Bus Terminal and at bus stops with a significant flow of passengers. The exclusion criterion adopted was not completing all instruments. Thus, 15 users were excluded due to the interview being interrupted because the bus they were waiting for had arrived. The final sample consisted of 109 older adults.

Instruments

The instruments for this study consisted of an Informed Consent Form (ICF), a sociodemographic questionnaire developed specifically for this investigation, and items from the Ageism Survey (Palmore, 2001). The sociodemographic questionnaire was used to characterize the sample and included questions about age, gender, color/race, marital status, education level, occupation, city of residence, approximate personal income, participation in community activities, and data collection location.

The Ageism Survey is a 20-item instrument which identifies how older adults perceive the age-based discrimination they experience. It was developed by Palmore (2001) and has a version translated for the Brazilian context (Couto et al., 2009). The participant responds to each item about whether the episode: (0) “never occurred”; (1) “occurred once”; or (2) “occurred more than once.” It should be clarified that the instrument by Couto et al. (2009) includes an indicator for assessing the stress level attributed by the individual to each discrimination event they claim to have experienced, but it was decided not to use this variable, as in the original Palmore (2001) instrument.

Items which could be applied to the public transportation context were used for this study, namely: being ignored; being insulted; being rejected due to appearance; being assumed to be deaf; being assumed not to have understood something said; being considered too old; being a victim of violence; being disrespected. Thus, discriminations faced by older adult users during the use of urban public transportation in the DF or its surroundings were investigated. Finally, an analysis was conducted in this study for each item separately, instead of calculating a total score for the instrument.

Procedure

Data collection for the study began after CEP approval, occurring between March and April 2022. The researchers followed the required protocol for Covid-19 pandemic since it was still ongoing, such as wearing masks. Data collection was performed by three undergraduate students (in Psychology or Medicine) and one doctoral student in Psychology. All participated in prior training with a Doctor in Psychology.

Older adult users at the Plano Piloto Bus Terminal in the DF and at high-traffic bus stops were invited to participate in the study, and if they agreed, to sign the ICF. After signing the ICF, application of the instruments began through individual interviews. Upon completion, the participants were asked if they wished to participate in the second stage of the investigation (Moura and Freitas, 2023) and receive its results. Those who accepted were asked to leave a phone number or email for contact.

Data analysis

IBM SPSS 23 software was used for data analysis, with a significance level of 5%. First, a descriptive analysis was conducted, in which qualitative variables were presented using frequency and percentage (%), and quantitative variables were presented using mean, median (Md), standard deviation (SD), minimum and maximum, and interquartile range (IQR). The items exploring the perception of older adults regarding occurrences of discrimination episodes (Ageism Survey) were subsequently related to the investigated sociodemographic variables. Qualitative variables were associated with each item using Pearson’s Chi-squared test with Monte Carlo simulation when necessary (at least one cell had an expected frequency less than 5). Quantitative variables were initially analyzed regarding data distribution normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. In turn, the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was used due to rejection of the null hypothesis of normality. Finally, Dunn’s post hoc test was performed for pairwise comparisons in cases which showed statistical significance.

Results

The sample consisted of 109 participants with a mean age of 69.18 years (SD=5.86; 60-84 years), in which 53.21% (n=58) were female and 46.79% (n=51) were male. Most declared themselves as mixed-race (57.80%; n=63); 30.28% (n=33) white; 7.34% (n=8) black; 2.75% (n=3) yellow (East Asian); 1.83% (n=2) indigenous. Regarding education level, most respondents (57.41%; n=62) had Elementary Education, followed by High School (23.15%; n=25) and Higher Education (19.44%; n=21). The participants were mainly concentrated in the categories of married or similar (33.33%; n=36) and separated or divorced (33.33%; n=36) regarding marital status. The others reported being single (20.37%; n=22) or widowed (12.96%; n=14). As observed, one participant did not answer the questions about education level and marital status.

About 30% (30.56%; n=33) of those investigated reported living alone, while the others (69.44%; n=76) lived with at least one person. Furthermore, 25.9% (n=28) of the interviewees stated they were retired regarding their occupation. Among those with an occupation, work as a domestic employee or day laborer (8.33%; n=9) and homemaker (7.41%; n=8) stood out. Other professions, such as teacher, lawyer, administrator, and security guard were also mentioned, but less frequently.

With respect to the residence region, 88.9% (n=97) stated they lived in the Administrative Regions (e.g., Ceilândia, Taguatinga, and Plano Piloto), and 10.08% (n=11) in the surroundings of the DF (i.e. Águas Lindas de Goiás and Novo Gama). One participant (0.93%) did not specify where they resided at the time of the study.

Regarding public transportation use, the majority (33.94%; n=37) of the participating older adults reported using this means of transport every day of the week. The others stated using it one (16.51%; n=18), two (17.43%; n=19), three (11%; n=11), four (11%; n=11), five (11%; n=11), or six (1.83%; n=2) days a week. The average time spent traveling from home to the bus stop was 9.54 minutes (SD=8.74; 1-60 minutes).

As can be seen in Table 1, all investigated items from the Ageism Survey were experienced in public transportation by at least one participant (0.92%), at least once (item “assumed you were deaf”). “Was disrespected” is the item most reported by passengers as having occurred more than once (n=51; 46.79%). Another item to mention is “was ignored,” which occurred at least once for 55 (50.46%) participants. In addition, it is worth highlighting that 29 (26.61%) passengers stated they had been victims of violence in the urban public transportation of the DF or its surroundings more than once.

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Table 1
– Descriptive Analysis of items in Ageism Survey experienced in public transportation by older adults residing in the Federal District and surroundings*

As mentioned in the Data Analysis section, the items which broach age discrimination in the context of public Transportation were associated to the variable investigated (tables 1 to 10). It was found that schooling was associated to the items “was ignored” (Table 2) and “suffered insult” (Table 3), both having happened significantly more often with older adults with lower schooling. The other items did not present statistically significant differences with the analyzed variables.

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Table 2
– Association between qualitative variables and the item “was ignored” in Ageism Survey*
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Table 3
– Association between qualitative variables and the item “Suffered Insult” in Ageism Survey*

There was no relation between the qualitative variables analyzed and the items “was rejected by their appearance” (table 4), “presumed they were deaf” (table 5), “presumed they did not understand what was said” (table 6), “was considered too old” (table 7) and “was disrespected” (table 9). However, the item “suffered violence” was more often significantly associated with older adults of the female gender with lower schooling and who lived alone (table 8).

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Table 4
– Association between qualitative variables and the item “was rejected by their appearance” in Ageism Survey*
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Table 5
– Association between qualitative variables and the item “Presumed they were deaf” in Ageism Survey*
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Table 6
– Association between qualitative variables and the item “Presumed they did not understand what was said” in Ageism Survey*
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Table 7
– Association between qualitative variables and the item “Was considered too old” in Ageism Survey*
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Table 9
– Association between qualitative variables and the item “Was disrespected” in Ageism Survey*
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Table 8
– Association between qualitative variables and the item “Suffered Violence” in Ageism Survey*

With respect to quantitative variables (Table 10), it is observed that the average time spent commuting from home to the bus stop (in minutes) was significantly associated with the item “was ignored.” Older adults who were ignored once spent an average time from residence to the bus stop significantly longer than those who were never ignored (p = 0.013) (Table 10).

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Table 10
– Association between quantitative variables and items in Ageism Survey*

Conversely, age was significantly associated with the item “was rejected due to their appearance.” Older adult passengers who were rejected more than once were significantly younger when compared to those who were never rejected based on their appearance (p = 0.041) (Table 10). Furthermore, according to Table 10, it can be observed that the number of people living with the participant was significantly associated with the item “was a victim of violence.” Older adults who suffered violence more than once lived with significantly fewer people than participants who never suffered violence (p = 0.001).

Discussion

The use of public transportation by older adults is subject to numerous challenges, ranging from mobility difficulties (Garrido et al., 2023) to discrimination episodes (Santana et al., 2024; Teixeira, Souza, & Maia, 2018). As observed in this study, all investigated discrimination forms (being ignored, rejected due to appearance, disrespected or considered too old, suffering insults, and perceived as deaf or as not having understood what was said) were experienced by at least 11% of the sample. Beyond these episodes, approximately one-third reported having been victims of violence in the context of urban public transportation in the Federal District and its surrounding areas. A discrimination form experienced at least once by more than half of the participants is being disrespected. In the study by Martins and Massarollo (2010), it was found that in addition to accessibility barriers and lack of priority in service, there were complaints related to the disrespectful behavior of drivers, fare collectors, and young users towards older adult passengers and their rights, such as free public transportation use and priority seating. Regarding fare exemption, although it was not a variable investigated in this study, it should be clarified that the legislation in force in the Federal District at the time of data collection mandated free fares only for those aged 65 or older (Distrito Federal, 2023). This sample consequently comprises both fare--paying and non-fare-paying public transport users. Since 2023, Law No. 7.298 guarantees fare exemption for individuals from the age of 60 in the Federal District (ibid.).

When discrimination forms were associated with demographic variables, it was found that older adult passengers with lower schooling reported being ignored, subjected to insults, and experiencing violence more frequently than those with higher educational attainment. A similar result was observed in a literature review on ageism among North Americans aged 50 years or older (Allen, Elias, & Greenwood, 2023). It was found in the investigation that individuals with lower schooling (64% of the retrieved studies) reported experiencing more ageism than their counterparts. According to Maximiano-Barreto and Fermoseli (2017), older adult individuals with limited education face barriers in advocating for their legal rights. Thus, education can be a crucial element for social inclusion in old age (but not exclusively) as noted by Allen, Elias, and Greenwood (2023), by facilitating the assimilation of protective norms and promoting a more active aging experience. Regarding the age aspect, older adult passengers who reported having been rejected due to their appearance more than once in the context of public transportation were significantly younger than those who do not believe they were rejected. It is possible that older adults have already internalized some discriminatory attitudes, no longer perceiving them as ageism. Furthermore, younger older adults may possess a critical awareness of prejudices, including those related to age. According to Nussbaum and Levmore (2017), aging is perceived differently across generations, and critical literacy can serve as an effective tool in mitigating age-based discrimination, thereby promoting the appreciation of aging.

Older women and older adults living alone also suffered violence more frequently than those who were male or did not live alone. Regarding the latter aspect, it was further observed that older adult transportation users who reported being victims of violence more than once lived with fewer people than participants who had never been victims of violence. This finding aligns with that of Santos et al. (2023), who identified a higher prevalence of violence in old age among those without a partner or who lived alone. Drawing on other studies, the authors argue that older adults living alone are more likely to experience abuse. According to Serin (2023), a solitary living situation may be associated with financial challenges and the exacerbation of poverty over time. Isolation may be even more common for older adults with health, vision, or hearing problems.

Regarding the relationship between gender and violence, it is well-established that violence against women stems from cultural norms that legitimize gender inequalities, reinforcing male dominance and female subjugation (Santana, Vasconcelos, & Coutinho, 2016). According to Mendonça (2020), public transportation in Brazilian states is an environment conducive to the occurrence of harassment and sexual abuse, particularly against women. Despite the low number of formal reports, the frequent impunity renders this issue highly relevant in contemporary society. Support initiatives for women who are victims of violence in public transport have shown positive outcomes, including the designation of priority spaces for specific groups, such as older adults (ibid.).

As for territory, it must be acknowledged that aging in urban peripheral areas is challenging for various reasons, including economic precarity and a lack of opportunities (Almeida & Damasceno, 2018). In this investigation, it was observed that older adult passengers who reported having been ignored once in the urban public transportation system presented a significantly longer average time spent going between their residence and the bus stop compared to older adult passengers who reported never having been ignored. Geographic residence is a variable that has not been extensively investigated in studies on ageism with older adult populations, yet it appears to be related to differences in the experience of ageism (Allen, Elias, & Greenwood, 2023). According to Almeida and Damasceno (2018), older adult residents of urban peripheries experience social exclusion, are ignored, feel undervalued, and face violence, constituting factors which impact their physical and mental health. In this regard, the role of the city as a context that either fosters social interactions or becomes an obstacle to them is reiterated. Therefore, it is essential to care for urban environments in order to facilitate the accessibility and mobility of older adult individuals (Mansilla, Boucher, & Routhier, 2024), particularly those residing in more remote regions.

The least reported discriminatory episode in this study was that in which people presumed that older adult was deaf in public transport. In this regard, it must be considered that passengers may use buses (boarding, sitting, and alighting) without ever communicating with others. Moreover, given the noise levels on urban buses, it is possible that other passengers, drivers, and fare collectors have become accustomed to speaking loudly (for example), and older adults may not recognize this behavior as discrimination. According to Battiston, Cruz, and Hoffmann (2006), prolonged exposure to bus noise not only impacts the work environment, but can also result in difficulty understanding speech. Additionally, drivers may develop hearing problems due to engine noise (Lopes et al., 2012). As observed in this study, although older adults of both genders and across different age groups (younger-old and older-old) frequently use urban public transportation, there is sometimes what Nascimento (2017) identified in their investigation, namely a “reluctance” among drivers, as reported by the drivers themselves, to transport older adult passengers. This is related to working conditions, such as the limited time allocated for completing routes, and conversely the greater amount of time required by older adult users to board, move to their seats, and alight from the bus. Nonetheless, beyond working conditions, negative or stereotypical views can also influence attitudes, not only among professionals serving older adults (Nelson, 2005), but within society at large. Consequently, efforts to combat ageism and promote age-friendly cities are essential.

Final considerations

Although ageism is a frequently discussed topic at present, scientific investigations into this construct within the context of public transportation remain scarce, particularly in Brazil. Hence, the results of this study contribute to better understanding of the issue, especially in the Federal District and its surrounding areas.

Notwithstanding these contributions, the limitations of this study must be emphasized. As it was conducted during a public health emergency (the COVID-19 pandemic), it is possible that the sample is biased. For instance, participants in this study may represent a more active and healthier profile of older adult passengers compared to other older adult users who remained in social isolation, as recommended by health authorities at the time. Moreover, the findings may have been influenced by the research instrument used, which was not specifically developed to assess discriminatory episodes within the context of public transportation. The generic items addressing ageism may not have adequately captured the specific manifestations of this type of prejudice in this transport setting.

Furthermore, it is important to consider that the perceptions of the participants were evaluated. Consequently, it is possible that a given incident may have been reported either because it genuinely occurred and was correctly perceived as an instance of ageism, or because it was not an actual case of age-based prejudice but was perceived as such due to an individual’s heightened sensitivity (Palmore, 2001). Conversely, an actual incident of ageism may have occurred but was not reported because it was not recognized as age-based prejudice, or because the participant may have been unwilling to acknowledge having experienced this discrimination form in a research context. However, this is a common challenge in interpreting results from measures that assess prejudice and discrimination, as seen in studies on racism and sexism (ibid.). Alternative methods, such as in-depth interviews and focus groups (Moura & Freitas, 2023), could help clarify these interpretations.

Despite the limitations, it is hoped that the results herein will contribute to develop initiatives targeting drivers, fare collectors, and other passengers aimed at raising awareness about ageism. Actions directed at public administrators and bus company owners are also essential, as their operational demands often imposed on drivers may inadvertently foster a reluctance to transport older adult passengers. Combating ageism in public transportation requires intersectoral action. It is also the responsibility of the state to guarantee the rights of these older adult citizens and to promote protective measures, without absolving society of its role.

Although laws guaranteeing accessibility (Brasil, 2000), fare exemption, and the reservation of priority seating in Brazilian public transportation already exist (Brasil, 2003), it is crucial to devise strategies for oversight and enforcement to ensure that these public policies are genuinely implemented. It is necessary to provide safe and comfortable transportation with adapted vehicles and trained professionals equipped to address the specific needs of this segment of the population. Finally, it is emphasized that planning and developing urban spaces and services which not only promote autonomy, accessibility, and social interaction benefits for older adults, but all citizens, for it strengthens the social fabric and fosters a more equitable and inclusive intergenerational coexistence (Verma, 2025). The adoption of universal design strategies is therefore necessary, ensuring that cities are genuinely friendly to all citizens, regardless of their age group.

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  • Data availability statement:
    The complete dataset supporting the results of this study has been published within the article itself.

Edited by

  • Editors:
    Lucia Bógus and Luiz César de Queiroz Ribeiro
  • Organizers of this issue:
    Ana Marcela Ardila Pinto, Carlos Fernando Ferreira Lobo, Natália Villamizar Duarte

Data availability

The complete dataset supporting the results of this study has been published within the article itself.

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    15 June 2026
  • Date of issue
    May-Aug 2026

History

  • Received
    28 June 2025
  • Accepted
    30 Sept 2025
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