Feasibility of synthetic and natural hybrid composites for applications in civil construction

ABSTRACT

The construction sector demands materials that combine mechanical performance and sustainability. This study evaluates the tensile behavior of polymer composites reinforced with glass fibers (200 GSM) and jute fibers (245 GSM) across six configurations: GGG, JJJ, GGJ, GJG, JJG, JGJ. Unlike research focused on structural components, this study advances by characterizing the composite material in isolation. Tensile tests, conducted according to ASTM D3039 standards, indicated that pure glass (GGG) and jute (JJJ) composites exhibited tensile strengths of 283.37 MPa and 24.46 MPa, with elastic moduli of 6.64 GPa and 1.01 GPa, respectively. Among the hybrids, the GGJ configuration demonstrated the optimal balance between performance and sustainability, achieving a tensile strength of 113.22 MPa and an elastic modulus of 2.53 GPa. This represents a reduction of approximately 60% in strength compared to GGG, yet an increase of over 250% relative to JJJ. Fracture analysis revealed fiber rupture and limited interfacial adhesion between the reinforcements. The GGJ composite is suitable for applications such as cladding panels, partitions, and street furniture. By proposing the partial replacement of synthetic materials in civil construction, this research contributes to SDGs 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), and 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).

Building; Hybrid composites; Polyester matrix; Sustainability

1. INTRODUCTION

There are currently new trends in materials development with an emphasis on reducing environmental impact. Various industries are seeking to adapt to these shifting market conditions by incorporating natural and renewable raw materials. Research in the field of composites has gained significant relevance for the advancement of such applications. The term “composites” refers to materials produced by combining, on a macroscopic scale, two or more constituents, typically comprising a synthetic matrix reinforced by fibers of industrial or natural origin [¹]. The function of the matrix is to ensure cohesion and the proper distribution of the load to the reinforcement [²].

Composites can be produced with various types of matrices where elements such as waste [³] or natural fibers are incorporated [⁴]. In research within the field of civil construction, cementitious matrices are widely used for the mechanical evaluation of these materials. Industries such as the automotive and aeronautics sectors also use composites in their applications due to factors such as increased mechanical efficiency from weight reduction. In civil construction, specifically, there is a growing use of these materials in research, such as the study developed by SANTOS et al. [⁵], which proposed the production of self-compacting cementitious matrices for use in composites with high fiber content. The authors used recycled fine aggregate resulting from the treatment of waste concrete and sisal fibers.

Composite materials present significant technological and strategic potential due to their versatility and alignment with sustainability and circular economy principles. Recent studies have highlighted this potential through the development of lightweight and eco-efficient construction materials, such as cellular lightweight foam concrete, which combines reduced density with adequate mechanical performance and thermal insulation [⁶]. Additionally, studies have explored polymer composites reinforced with natural fibers, including banana fibers in interpenetrating polymer network matrices, showing improvements in tensile, flexural, and impact properties [⁷]. In addition, the incorporation of industrial by-products and lignocellulosic fibers in geopolymer and cementitious composites has been shown to reduce the consumption of natural resources while enhancing durability and mechanical behavior [⁸].

Concrete is one of the most widely used materials in the construction industry due to its strength and durability. However, it has some characteristics that are not favorable, such as fragility, low fracture resistance, and low impact resistance. Given this, research in the field of composites has been directed toward the use of reinforcements applied to concrete or cementitious matrices, with the aim of improving the properties of the materials produced by enhancing their mechanical performance [⁹]. Among the types of reinforcement, there is the wide use of synthetic and natural fibers. Synthetic fibers such as glass and carbon have numerous applications, consolidated in various sectors of industry. These fibers are valued for their mechanical properties, especially their strength [¹⁰].

The addition of fibers to cementitious matrices is particularly effective in improving tensile and flexural strength, toughness, fatigue resistance, and crack control. This has been demonstrated in concretes reinforced with basalt and glass fibers [¹¹], as well as in basalt fiber-reinforced concretes with different fiber lengths and volume fractions [¹²]. Since conventional concrete exhibits low tensile strength, fiber reinforcement emerges as an efficient alternative or complementary solution to steel bars, especially in applications where crack control and ductility are critical. This is evidenced by studies using natural fibers such as coconut fibers [¹³], textile- reinforced concrete systems [¹⁴], and fiber-reinforced polymer solutions for reinforced concrete applications [¹⁵].

In the context of fiber reinforcement in concrete, natural fibers stand out as low-cost alternatives that promote an ecological approach, as they are derived from renewable, biodegradable, and widely available raw materials. Recent experimental studies have demonstrated the feasibility of incorporating plant-based fibers into cementitious matrices, such as Masson’s pine needle fibers, which were shown to improve the compressive strength, tensile strength, ductility, and toughness of concrete after appropriate pretreatments [¹⁶]. The growing interest in natural fibers is also supported by broader sustainability assessments, which indicate that using environmentally friendly construction materials can significantly reduce emissions, mitigate environmental impacts throughout the lifecycle, and promote healthier built environments when compared to conventional materials [¹⁷]. In addition to their environmental benefits, both natural and synthetic fibers have been reported to enhance the mechanical and physical properties of construction materials by improving crack control, deformation capacity, and overall durability, as evidenced in comprehensive reviews addressing fibers such as jute, sisal, hemp, glass, and carbon [¹⁸]. Furthermore, recent structural applications have demonstrated the effectiveness of hybrid systems combining natural and synthetic fibers, particularly jute/glass fiber-reinforced polymers, in strengthening reinforced concrete elements and controlling crack propagation [¹⁹].

Plant fibers have emerged as promising alternatives for the reinforcement of polymer composites due to their renewable origin, wide availability, biodegradability, and favorable specific mechanical properties. In regions with high biodiversity, such as the Amazon, lignocellulosic fibers, including jute and sisal, have demonstrated technical feasibility in real engineering applications, such as the manufacture of polymer composite structures for small vessels, through experimental and numerical validations of mechanical performance [²⁰, ²¹]. The growing interest in natural fiber-reinforced composites is further supported by extensive studies highlighting their low cost, reduced environmental impact, social benefits, and competitive strength-to-weight ratios when compared to conventional reinforcements [²²]. Experimental investigations on polyester matrix composites reinforced with jute fibers have shown that fiber orientation and stacking sequence play a decisive role in tensile strength, stiffness, and failure mechanisms, reinforcing the importance of structural design in these materials [²³, ²⁴]. Advances in manufacturing techniques, such as resin infusion, have enabled the production of natural fiber composites with high fiber volume fractions, low porosity, and improved interfacial efficiency, enhancing their mechanical reliability and industrial viability [²⁵]. Moreover, recent studies on hybrid natural/synthetic fiber composites have demonstrated that combining lignocellulosic fibers with glass fibers can significantly improve tensile strength, impact resistance, and thermal stability, broadening their application potential in engineering systems [²⁶]. Additional research on sisal fiber-reinforced polyester composites has confirmed that fiber length, alignment, and volume fraction strongly influence mechanical performance, supporting their use as cost-effective alternatives to synthetic reinforcements [²⁷, ²⁸].

In this context, the applicability of synthetic and natural fibers in the construction sector is addressed, with the majority of their use being as reinforcements in concrete (cementitious matrices). Due to the use of concrete, the mechanical characterizations of the materials produced are carried out mainly with compression and bending tests, tensile strength is obtained indirectly from the result of compressive strength. Among the synthetic fibers observed are steel, carbon, and glass, while natural fibers are concentrated in the use of sisal and jute, with mallow fiber also being observed. Table 1 shows the mechanical properties obtained from tests on concrete (cementitious matrices) reinforced with synthetic and natural fibers. It is important to note that the results presented were obtained from materials tested after 28 days of aging, the flexural tests were evaluated at four points, and the elastic moduli were obtained from compression tests.

Table 1
Mechanical properties of cementitious and concrete matrices reinforced by synthetic and natural fibers found in the literature.

MATERIAL	APPLICATION	FIBER FRACTION (v/v) (%)	SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)	COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)	FLEXURAL STRENGTH (MPa) (4 POINT)	IMPACT ENERGY (J)	ELASTIC MODULUS (MPa)	STRAIN (%)	REFERENCE
Portland cement + Jute fibers	Mechanical characterization for structural applications	–	–	–	24.57 (±14.25)	–	–	9.93 (±36.06)	OLIVEIRA and MELO FILHO [29]
Metakaolin + Jute fibers		–	–	–	9.56 (±5.77)	–	–	7.13 (±0.50)
Metakaolin + Mallow fibers		–	–	–	25.75 (±12.36)	–	–	3.42 (±24.23)
Concrete + Hooked-end steel fibers	Mechanical characterization of reinforced concrete for design	0.50	–	65.50 (±3.74)	–	–	47984 (±5160)	–	ALMEIDA et al. [30]
Concrete + Chopped glass fibers		0.50	–	53.42 (±1.58)	–	–	38403	–
Concrete + Monofilament polymeric fibers		0.50	–	48.72 (±0.56)	–	–	364112 (±4554)	–
Concrete + Sisal fibers	Mechanical characterization for structural applications in Blocks, Prisms and Walls	1.00	–	7.16	–	–	–	–	SOTO et al. [31]
Concrete + Sisal fibers			–	4.37	–	–	4484.49	2.22
Concrete + Sisal fibers			–	3.30	–	–	5243.00	1.47
Compacting concrete + Steel fibers	Mechanical characterization for structural applications in beam	1.00	–	47.30	10.60	–	35.4 (GPa)	–	BARROS et al. [32]
Treated sisal fibers +Cementitious matrix	Mechanical characterization	4	–	25.25 (±9.88)	5.02 (±6.4)	–	14.41 (GPa) (±6.36)	–	CALAZANS et al. [33]
		6	–	23.18 (±4.47)	3.44 (±10.6)	–	13.11 (GPa) (±7.11)	–
Concrete + Glass fibers	Mechanical characterization	0.50	2.68	34.07	3.76	–	–	–	AJAY and KUMAR [34]
Concrete + Glass fibers	Mechanical characterization	0.50	6.20	66.00	6.60	–	–	–	SIVAKUMAR et al. [35]
Cementitious matrix + Sisal fibers	Mechanical characterization	–	–	32.80	5.80	–	–	–	KURPIŃSKA et al. [36]
Cementitious matrix + Jute fibers			–	33.10	5.20	–	–	–
Concrete + Sisal fibers	Mechanical characterization of lightweight block for one-way precast concrete slabs	6 (m/m)	3.62 (±0.10)	36.27 (±1.80)	4.72 (±1.80)	–	–	–	LIMA et al. [37]
Recycled concrete + Sisal fibers			3.08 (±3.10)	36.73 (±0.90)	4.63 (±3.50)	–	–	–
Concrete + Carbon fibers	Mechanical characterization	0.40	7~σ~6	40~σ~44	–	–	–	–	KHAN et al. [38]

There is research that also explores other properties. FUJIYAMA et al. [³⁹] evaluated the absorbed impact energy of cementitious matrix composites with short sisal fibers of 25 and 45 mm in length, obtaining 25.00 (± 1.00) J and 22.00 (± 1.00) J, respectively.

The use of natural fibers incorporated into polymeric matrices has garnered growing interest in the construction sector due to the possibility of reducing environmental impacts while offering good mechanical performance. FRANCKLIN et al. [⁴⁰] investigated composites formed by a polymer matrix and vegetable fibers, with different reinforcement fractions, applied as reinforcement elements in reinforced concrete structures. The results showed that such composites can achieve performance comparable to conventional reinforcements using high-performance synthetic fibers, showing significant gains in flexural strength compared to elements without polymer reinforcement.

ALMS et al. [⁴¹] explored the production of type I beams from natural composites obtained by vacuum infusion, using a renewable polymer matrix and low-cost, readily available plant fibers. The study ranged from characterizing fiber permeability to manufacturing and testing prototypes at different scales. The research has shown that it is possible to obtain structural elements made of plant composites with potential for application in components that require significant mechanical strength and durability.

Recent advances in materials science have also driven the development of smart polymer composites, which encompass combinations of synthetic matrices and plant-based or synthetic reinforcements aimed at high-performance applications in civil engineering. Polymer matrix composites can incorporate both plant and synthetic fibers, exploiting benefits such as specific strength, durability, and corrosion resistance [⁴²]. In other words, the proliferation of polymeric components has enabled solutions with enhanced durability, flexibility, corrosion resistance, and good cost-effectiveness [⁴³].

With regard to synthetic fibers in structural reinforcement, studies report increases in strength, such as gains of approximately 30% in the flexural strength of beams reinforced with synthetic fiber-reinforced polymer composites [⁴⁴]. AZEVEDO et al. [⁴⁵] developed railway sleepers composed of fiberglass-reinforced polymer (GFRP) profiles filled with high-strength concrete. The objective was to create mechanically and structurally viable components that were lighter and more resistant to corrosion than conventional prestressed concrete sleepers.

Corrosion of steel bars is one of the main causes of reinforced concrete degradation in civil engineering, increasing costs for rehabilitation and structural repairs. BARBOSA et al. [⁴⁶] proposed the use of fiber- reinforced polymer (FRP) bars (using aramid, glass, and carbon) to replace steel reinforcement in concrete structures. The study highlighted that, despite the need for adjustments to the reinforcement ratio to prevent creep rupture, solutions with polymer matrices and non-metallic fibers showed potential to meet structural requirements, extending the service life of structures and reducing maintenance costs.

In a comparative study, FERNANDES et al. [⁴⁷] analyzed concrete beams reinforced with glass fiber- reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars compared to traditional beams with steel reinforcement. It was found that, although the alternative beams presented greater deflections due to the reduced modulus of elasticity, the structural behavior was in accordance with normative predictions, and the ultimate loads were close to those specified in the design. Table 2 presents the mechanical properties of construction structures reinforced with polymer composites and natural and synthetic fibers, for the studies that present the mechanical characterization of the composite, the respective property value of the isolated material is also presented.

Table 2
Mechanical properties of materials used in civil construction reinforced by polymer composites and natural fibers found in the literature.

MATERIAL	APPLICATIONS	TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)	COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)	FLEXURAL STRENGTH (MPa) (3 POINTS)	MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (GPa)	STRAIN (%)	MAXIMUM LOAD SUPPORTED (kN)	DEFLECTION (mm)	CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ISOLATED COMPOSITE MATERIAL	REFERENCE
Wood + (Epoxy matrix + glass fiber)	Beam surface reinforcement	–	–	125.00	9.70	–	–	–	NO	ŞIMŞEK TÜRKER et al. [44]
Beams + (Polyolefin matrix + glass fiber)	Profiles filled with concrete for Railway sleepers	372.01	–	–	31.61	–	–	–	YES	AZEVEDO et al. [45]
Concrete + (Polymer matrix + glass fiber)	GFRP bars for concrete frames	–	–	–	–	–	69.80	11.30	NO	FERNANDES et al. [47]
T-section beams + (Polymer matrix + glass fiber)	Reinforcement for T-section beams	600	–	–	70	–	–	–	NO	BARBOSA et al. [46]
Concrete + (Epoxy matrix + sisal fibers)	Reinforcement of reinforced concrete structures	118.29	–	–	16.70	2.76	–	–	YES	FRANCKLIN et al. [40]
Concrete + (Epoxy matrix + jute fiber)	Beam surface reinforcement	–	–	–	–	–	180	4.9	NO	MAKHLOUF et al. [48]

From the analysis of Table 2, it can be observed that the focus of academic literature on polymer composites applied in civil construction is mainly directed toward the reinforcement of structural elements, such as beams/rods and reinforced concrete. These materials, which use synthetic fibers, especially steel, glass, carbon, and polymers, are widely used in applications that require greater mechanical strength, such as increasing the load capacity and rigidity of beams and structural sections, with significant tensile strength and elastic modulus values. Composites reinforced with natural fibers, such as sisal and jute, although they possess inferior mechanical properties when compared to synthetic fibers, are studied as sustainable and lower-cost alternatives, mainly directed toward the partial replacement of traditional materials in concrete and beams, with relevant structural and environmental performance gains.

In turn, few studies directly evaluate the properties of polymer composites in isolation, indicating a recent effort in the literature to characterize these materials independently, enabling greater predictability in their future employment in hybrid building systems and expanding the possibilities of material application in the construction sector. Although there is significant literature focused on the application of polymer composites in structural elements in civil construction, it is observed that most of the works concentrate on testing the material already applied in the final system, such as beams and reinforced concrete. In addition, the tensile properties of composites are also little explored. There is a limited amount of research dedicated to the isolated characterization of the manufactured composite, which represents a gap in the addressed literature.

Although synthetic and natural fibers have been widely investigated in cementitious composites, most studies in the civil construction field focus on structural elements in which the composite material is not evaluated independently. This limits the understanding of how laminate architecture and fiber positioning affect the intrinsic mechanical behavior. Therefore, a gap remains regarding the isolated tensile characterization of hybrid polymer composites intended for civil construction. Recent studies have provided comprehensive overviews of polymer and natural fiber composites, highlighting advances in multifunctional performance, sustainability, and processing routes. VERMA et al. [⁴⁹] reviewed graphene-based natural fiber composites, emphasizing improvements in electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties, while SHARMA et al. [⁵⁰] analyzed correlations between the mechanical properties of polymer composites with different matrices and reinforcements. Furthermore, some experimental investigations, such as those by SINGH et al. [⁵¹], which evaluated kenaf/HDPE composites under environmental conditioning, focus on durability in specific service environments. However, despite the growing body of literature on natural and hybrid fiber composites, there is still a lack of experimental studies dedicated to the isolated tensile characterization of hybrid polymer laminates, particularly with regard to the influence of stacking sequence and fiber positioning on mechanical performance. The present study addresses this gap by mechanically characterizing polyester matrix laminates reinforced with glass and jute fabrics, manufactured by hand lay-up. This work establishes a comparison between hybrid configurations, linking the stacking sequence to tensile performance and fracture behavior in order to suggest potential applications in the construction sector.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six composite configurations were manufactured with a polyester matrix reinforced with glass (G) and jute (J) fabrics arranged in different positions, namely: two pure configurations composed of glass fibers (GGG) and jute fibers (JJJ), and four hybrid arrangements – GGJ, GJG, JJG, and JGJ, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Proposed configurations of glass and jute fabrics in the manufactured composites.

The combinations were verified to determine which ones preserve the maximum possible mechanical performance in relation to the pure synthetic composite (GGG), while incorporating fibers with less environmental impact for applications in civil construction. The manufacture was carried out through the hand lay-up method, the control of the volumetric fractions of each type of reinforcement was performed by inserting resin quantities with known masses.

The polymer matrix used in the production of the composites was an unsaturated terephthalic polyester resin, supplied by Ara Química, commercially identified as Arazan AZ 1.0 #34. The curing process was conducted at room temperature by adding methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP), commercially known as Permec D-45, at a ratio of 0.7% by volume, according to the manufacturer’s specifications. This resin has a density of 1.2 to 1.5 g/cm³, tensile strength between 40 and 90 MPa, a Young’s modulus ranging from 2.0 to 4.5 GPa, and a maximum elongation of 2%, characteristics that justify its frequent use in the manufacture of composite materials due to its combination of mechanical performance, low cost, and ease of processing [⁵²].

The reinforcements used were bidirectional fabrics of glass fiber and jute, with weights of 200 GSM and 245 GSM, respectively. Both were purchased locally and cut manually to dimensions of 0.28 m × 0.32 m, ensuring adequacy to the configurations established for assembly. In total, 24 fabrics were used: 9 of glass fiber and 15 of jute.

The fabrication was carried out manually, interleaving the fabrics according to the configurations determined for each type of material. The layers were positioned between two plywood boards (0.36 m × 0.40 m × 0.013 m), previously coated with transparent polyester film and adhesive tape, ensuring that there was no unwanted adhesion between the material and the support surface. The resulting system is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2
Illustrative diagram of the composite manufacturing process: (A) representative compression of the GJG composite, (B) arrangement of layers between plywood boards.

After assembly, hydraulic pressing with a 0.5-ton load was applied for two hours, ensuring proper compaction and curing. At the end of the process, the laminates were obtained and then cut to produce test specimens according to the dimensions standardized by the ASTM D3039 standard [⁵³]. On average, each laminate yielded 10 test specimens, for each produced composite configuration, 5 specimens were selected from those available for finishing and subsequent testing.

For the preparation of the region where the specimen is fixed to the grips, alternative reinforcement tabs were glued using Tek Bond No. 725 structural adhesive. Three types of tabs were evaluated: plywood, glass, and 180-grit sandpaper. Figure 3 illustrates the acquisition of the specimens and placement of the tabs, as well as the final dimensions of the specimens. The glass fiber tab showed better performance and was used for all tests.

Figure 3
Preparation and extraction of specimens for tensile tests.

Figure 4 shows a flowchart describing the manufacturing steps used in this research for the production of the proposed hybrid composites. Before assembly, the jute fabrics were weighed and dried in an oven for 5 minutes to remove residual moisture. The average mass loss recorded after drying was 10.24%.

Figure 4
Sequence of steps involved in the adopted methodology.

Tensile tests were performed according to the ASTM D3039 standard at the Materials Engineering Laboratory of the Federal Institute of Pará (IFPA), located in Belém, PA. An Arotec universal testing machine, model WDW-100E, was used, operating at a load application speed of 2 mm/min with a load cell of 5 kN, at room temperature. After rupture, the fracture surfaces of the specimens were analyzed to identify the predominant failure mechanisms, using direct observation and the aid of a stereoscope, which allowed for a magnified inspection of the regions of interest.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The manufacturing process resulted in plates with few visible voids and discontinuities. The use of layers of transparency (polyester) provided a smooth surface and a good surface finish, as well as facilitated demoulding. The plates presented dimensional uniformity throughout the thickness, attesting to the reproducibility of the process and ensuring consistency in the tensile tests due to the similarity of the cross-sectional areas of the specimens. All plates obtained presented high rigidity, favoring the handling and ensuring the uniformity of specimens.

The satisfactory performance of the process is directly related to the application of pressure during the first 24 hours of resin curing and to the coating of the mold with polyester sheets. The pressure contributed to the adequate impregnation of the fabrics by the polymer matrix and to the elimination of bubbles incorporated during the manual manufacturing process.

3.1. Mechanical properties of composites

The test samples failed in the effective length region, validating the test results. Table 3 shows the physical-mechanical properties Maximum Stress (σ) and Modulus of Elasticity (E) of the hybrid composites manufactured in this research, presenting the average values of these properties, calculated from the individual results obtained for the five samples from each composite stacking configuration. along with the average values, the standard deviation data obtained from the same sample space mentioned above are presented, illustrating the positive or negative variation in relation to the average values presented, represented by “±”.

Table 3
Mechanical properties as a function of the composition of the proposed materials.

COMPOSITE MATERIAL	VOLUMETRIC FRACTION (%)		σ (MPa)	E (GPa)	REFERENCE
	JUTE	GLASS
GGG	–	15.35	283.37 ± 76.87	6.64 ± 0.20	This study
GJG	10.43	7.49	95.97 ± 8.00	2.74 ± 0.00
GGJ	10.57	7.36	113.22 ± 5.30	2.53 ± 0.09
JJG	15.20	2.96	76.15 ± 29.22	3.42 ± 0.00
JGJ	14.63	3.06	87.72 ± 3.29	2.40 ± 0.26
JJJ	18.09	–	24.46 ± 0.74	1.01 ± 0.15
T-section beams + (Polymer matrix + glass fiber)	–		600.00	70.00	BARBOSA et al. [46]
Beams + (Polyester matrix + glass fibers)	–		372.01	31.61	AZEVEDO et al. [45]
Concrete + (Epoxy matrix + sisal fibers)	–		118.29	16.70	FRANCKLIN et al. [40]

The preliminary analysis of the results reveals that, compared to the materials tested in this study, there is a loss of mechanical strength and a decrease in the modulus of elasticity, i.e., stiffness, due to the inclusion of layers of jute fabric, replacing synthetic glass reinforcement with natural reinforcement. As expected, the GGG composite had the highest tensile strength (283.37 MPa) among all those evaluated. Replacing one of the outer layers of glass fabric with jute fabric (GGJ) resulted in a reduction of approximately 60% in mechanical strength. When the jute fabric layer was positioned in the central region (GJG), the tensile strength was about 66% lower than that of GGG. Comparing the two arrangements with a jute layer, GJG showed approximately 15% lower strength than GGJ. Figure 5 shows a representation of the variation in mechanical properties as a function of the replacement of glass layers with jute.

Figure 5
Representation of the variation in mechanical properties as a function of the replacement of glass layers by jute layers.

It is evident that another factor influencing the variation in tensile strength is the positioning of the fabrics. While replacing a glass reinforcement layer with jute yields the best mechanical performance when the jute fabric is positioned at the edges, replacing two synthetic layers with natural ones results in lower strength when the glass fabric is positioned at the edges, with the best performance being achieved when it is in the center.

In relation to GGG, the JJG composite showed a 73% lower strength, JGJ showed a 69% lower strength, and JJJ showed a 91% lower strength. Despite this, it should be noted that the insertion of glass layers in composites consisting mainly of jute substantially increases the mechanical properties. Starting from the tensile strength value of JJJ (24.46 MPa), the addition of a central layer of glass (JGJ) increased this property by approximately 259%, while the addition of glass in the outer layers (GJJ/JJG) promoted an increase of about 211%. In both cases, the improvement exceeds twice the original strength, with a more significant advantage when the glass is positioned in the central layer.

The highest modulus of elasticity was recorded for GGG (6.64 GPa), followed by JJG (3.42 GPa), which, however, exhibited low deformation at rupture, characterizing it as a more brittle material. The elasticity moduli of GJG (2.74 GPa) and GGJ (2.53 GPa) are similar, although GJG exhibits approximately 20% less deformation than GGJ. The deformation level of GJG is similar to that of JGJ (2.40 GPa), but the former, containing two layers of glass, has a higher modulus.

Given this, with a view to replacing synthetic reinforcement with natural fibers, the composite with the GGJ stacking configuration offered the best resistance following the replacement of synthetic reinforcement with natural materials. Therefore, this hybrid was selected as a potential material for application in civil construction research.

Regarding the materials in the literature presented in Table 3, it is observed that the value obtained by the GGJ composite was lower than those of the materials characterized by BARBOSA et al. [⁴⁶], AZEVEDO et al. [⁴⁵], and FRANCKLIN et al. [⁴⁰], with respective strength values approximately 1489%, 228%, and 4% lower. Regarding the findings of Barbosa et al. [⁴⁶], there is considerable variation, given that the analysis was performed based on a structural component, i.e., glass fiber reinforced polymer beams. For the composite evaluated by AZEVEDO et al. [⁴⁵], the use of fiberglass reinforcement, also with a polyester matrix, resulted in a considerably higher value. This circumstance is related to the fiber fraction used (64.12%), considering that it directly influences the stiffness, strength, and energy absorption of the final material [⁵⁴,⁵⁵, ⁵⁶,⁵⁷].

Compared to the result obtained by FRANCKLIN et al. [⁴⁰], there is a low variation in the evaluated property ratio. Even though the material evaluated by the author had an integral reinforcement of natural fibers, these were arranged continuously and aligned, this condition implies greater mechanical strength in the longitudinal direction relative to the applied load [⁵⁸,⁵⁹,⁶⁰]. Aligned composite materials always exhibit the best mechanical properties. In addition, the matrix used was epoxy resin, which provides better mechanical performance in composites when compared to polyester [⁶¹, ⁶²].

Therefore, it was evaluated that no tests of hybrid composites applied in structures directed to the construction sector have been verified. Furthermore, a considerable portion of the specialized literature regarding composites applied in structures, mainly as reinforcement, does not perform the characterization of the composite in isolation, which would make it possible to verify the mechanical behavior of the composite as well as the structure with the reinforced polymer.

In this sense, it was evaluated that the hybrid composite with the GGJ stacking configuration can replace composites with reinforcement of natural and synthetic fibers applied in structures, provided that the strength of 113.22 MPa is met. Therefore, by using hybrids, the aim is to reduce costs and emphasize an ecological bias, in view of this, there is a reduction in the cost of obtaining material and the use of a natural and renewable material.

3.2. Assessment of composite fracture

The stress-strain curves (Figure 6) show, at the beginning of loading, a characteristic slope that declines from a certain level of deformation. This behavior is associated both with the rupture of the fibers in the layers with lower elongation capacity, as seen in composites with a higher jute fraction, and with the detachment between the layers of the fabric, which promotes the fracture of the fibers and the consequent reduction of the modulus of elasticity. This phenomenon was observed in composites with two layers of jute, but also in those with only one or even exclusively with layers of glass, evidencing a common pattern in composites arranged in layers, in which the initial failure occurs in the least deformable layer and evolves to global rupture when all layers reach their limit [⁶³].

Figure 6
Characteristic curves of the proposed composites GGG, JJJ, GGJ, GJG, JJG, and JGJ.

Figures 7(A) and 8 present the fracture aspects of the specimens for the JJJ and GGG fabric stacking configurations, respectively. Figure 7(B) exposes a schematic representation of a lateral fracture, adapted from the ASTM 3039 standard [⁵³], indicating the failure mechanism of the JJJ composite. A similar failure characteristic is observed in the GGG composite, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7
(A) Fracture aspect of the JJJ composite specimen with red arrows indicating the fracture of the jute warp threads, and (B) a schematic drawing of the lateral failure mechanism adapted from the ASTM 3039 standard [⁵³].

Figure 8
Fracture aspect of the GGG composite specimen, with red arrows indicating the fracture of the warp glass yarns and red arrows showing the separation of the weft glass yarns.

It is noted that the hybrid materials manufactured showed a linear behavior until the fracture. This behaviour is characteristic for many types of polymer composites reinforced with synthetic fibres between layers [⁶⁴], typical of thermoset matrices [⁶⁵].

In the JJJ composite, a complete rupture of the warp yarns was observed, which were aligned with the direction of the applied load, as indicated by the red arrows. No delamination was observed between the jute fabric layers, suggesting good matrix wettability within the composite material. The fiber failure along the plane of the fracture surface validates this observation.

Similar to what occurred with the JJJ composite, the complete fracture of the warp glass yarns was observed for the GGG configuration, aligned with the direction of the applied load, as indicated by the red arrows. In contrast, the separation of the weft yarns in the fabric was verified, with the presence of glass fiber filaments perpendicular to the submitted load, exposed in the upper and lower regions of the fracture, indicated by the yellow arrows. The glass fibers are exposed, with the absence of matrix resin, indicating that the energy released during the fracture was sufficient to make the matrix brittle, promoting its fragmentation and detachment from the glass fabric yarns.

Figures 9 and 10(A) present the fracture aspect of the composite specimens with the GJG and GGJ stacking configurations, respectively. In Figure 9, a lateral failure condition is observed, similar to that shown in Figure 7(B), while in Figure 10(B), an explosive fracture is verified as the failure mechanism, which is also illustrated through a schematic originated from the ASTM 3039 standard [⁵³].

Figure 9
Fracture aspect of the GJG composite specimen, with red arrows indicating the fractures of the warp yarns of the jute fabric and yellow arrows indicating those of the glass fabric.

Figure 10
(A) Fracture aspect of the GGJ composite specimen, with red arrows indicating the exposure of the glass fabric weft yarns, and (B) schematic drawing of the explosive failure mechanism, adapted from the ASTM 3039 standard [⁵³].

For the GJG composite, the fracture of the warp yarns was observed both in the central jute fabric and in the outer glass layers, aligned with the direction of the applied load, the red arrows show the fracture of the jute yarns, while the yellow arrows show those of glass. Good fiber wettability can be evaluated by the absence of delamination between the interleaved layers. It is observed that the surfaces of the glass fabric yarns are exposed and without the presence of the matrix, indicating that fragmentation and pulverization of the matrix occurred, generated by the strain energy in the region where the fracture took place. It is also observed that the generated fracture surface has a flat aspect and is perpendicular to the load.

In the GGJ composite, the exposure of the glass fabric weft fibers is observed, indicated by the red arrows, due to the fragmentation of the matrix after rupture, the surface jute layer fragmented and pulverized along with the matrix. The fracture surface of the GGJ composite presented a different aspect from that shown by the GJG composite, despite having the same composition of two glass fabrics and one jute fabric, such circumstance can be understood by the fact that the surface jute fabric fractures earlier and transfers the load to the rest of the glass fabric composite.

Figures 11 and 12 present the fracture aspect of the composite specimens with the JJG and JGJ stacking configurations, respectively. In Figure 11, the explosive fracture failure mechanism is also evaluated, similar to the schematic shown in Figure 10(B), while in Figure 12, a failure condition similar to that verified in Figure 7(B), lateral fracture, is observed.

Figure 11
Fracture aspect of the JJG composite specimen, with red arrows indicating the fracture of the warp glass yarns and the compacted region of the jute fabric, represented by the yellow arrow.

Figure 12
Fracture aspect of the JGJ composite specimen, with red arrows indicating the fractures of the warp yarns of the jute fabric and yellow arrows indicating those of the glass fabric.

In the JJG composite, the fracture of the glass fabric warp yarns is evidenced, as shown by the red arrow. Due to the higher number of consecutive jute fabric layers, a higher level of compaction is observed, illustrated by the orange arrow. The fracture of the jute fabric portion of the composite, as it presents lower strength relative to the glass fabric portion, fails first, and the energy released in the fracture resulted in the detachment of the glass fabric yarns, which became exposed, as can be seen in the figure.

Similar to the GJG stacking configuration, the rupture of the warp jute and glass yarns was also observed in JGJ, in the direction aligned with the applied load. The red arrows indicate the ruptured yarns of the jute layers, while the orange arrows indicate the fractured yarns of the glass fabric. The symmetric arrangement and distribution produce a flat and uniform fracture surface, while the non-symmetric situation generates an irregular fracture surface.

The hybrid composites proposed in this work take advantage of natural fibers to reduce costs, decrease environmental impact while maintaining a suitable mechanical strength for applications that do not require high structural capacity. These materials are commonly used in façade systems, lightweight cladding panels, internal partitions, modular components, street furniture, and architectural elements where low weight, corrosion resistance, and ease of installation are required. By partially replacing synthetic fibers with natural jute fibers, the proposed hybrids contribute to cost reduction and a lower environmental impact, while preserving mechanical performance compatible with such applications. In particular, the GGJ configuration presents a favorable balance between tensile strength and sustainability, making it suitable for panels, partitions, and street furniture components.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Given the general overview of publications related to the use of fibers and polymer composites in the civil construction sector, and noting the lack of research characterizing composites in isolation as a complement to the evaluation of their application as structural reinforcement, the mechanical testing of the hybrid composites proposed in this work is emphasized. Natural fibers are utilized to reduce costs, aiming to decrease environmental impacts while maintaining adequate mechanical strength for applications that do not require high structural capacity. Among these, the GGJ material is promising because it exhibits good mechanical strength with a lower content of synthetic fibers, making it suitable for elements such as cladding panels, partitions, and street furniture.

Hybrid laminated composites with a polyester matrix reinforced with glass fibers (200 GSM) and jute fibers (245 GSM) were tested for their tensile strength, aiming to present a potential material for research in the civil construction field. Initially, an overview of the use of both natural and synthetic fibers in research directed at the construction sector was presented, revealing that most articles focused on the use of such fibers as reinforcement in concrete (cementitious matrix). Subsequently, the application of polymer composites in the construction sector was also examined, noting that the primary focus of these studies is the use of these composites as reinforcement for structural elements, such as beams, bars, and reinforced concrete. Given this context, a limited number of studies presenting the mechanical evaluation of polymer composites in isolation was identified. Since the characterizations performed were mostly of structures already reinforced with these composites, the independent characterization of the composites is emphasized for mapping the properties of new materials in future reinforcement tests.

Furthermore, regarding composites reinforced with natural fibers, it is observed that although they provide lower mechanical property values compared to the use of synthetic fibers, their use is highlighted as a sustainable and lower-cost alternative, promoting the attempt to replace traditional materials. Consequently, from the evaluation of the hybridization of the composites, it was verified that the replacement of a synthetic glass reinforcement layer with natural reinforcement, specifically in the GGJ stacking configuration, can be applied to replace natural and synthetic fiber-reinforced composites used in structures, provided that a strength of 113.22 MPa is met. Therefore, based on the characterization of hybrid polymer composites in isolation, the use of hybrid reinforcement is valued for promoting the use of natural and renewable materials and for favoring the reduction of acquisition and processing costs. Additionally, it expands the possibilities for characterizing new composite materials for application in the civil construction sector, envisioning new hybridization tests using different fibers and matrices.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank PROPESP/UFPA for the Institutional Scientific Initiation Scholarship Program (PIBIC) and for the scholarships awarded to undergraduate students. We would also like to thank CAPES, CNPq, and the Composite Materials Laboratory at the Federal University of Pará for the experiments carried out in this work. We are grateful for the support of FEM/ITEC/UFPA and PPGEM/ITEC/UFPA. We would also like to acknowledge the support of the Human Resources Training Program, through the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels – PRH-ANP.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  01 May 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  31 Oct 2025
• Accepted
  12 Mar 2026