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Articles • Matéria (Rio J.) 31 • 2026 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1517-7076-RMAT-2026-0228 linkcopy

Open-access Synergistic effects of GGBS and nylon fiber on the mechanical behaviour of self-compacting concrete

ABSTRACT

The impact of Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GGBS) and nylon fibre on the performance of self-compacting concrete (SCC) has been evaluated. To assess the influence of this materials, 25% of Portland cement substitution was done in the mix with GGBS. The reaction generates more calcium silicate hydrate and produces a more refined microstructure as an outcome of the replacement. At this replacement level, sufficient cement hydration guarantees adequate 28 day compressive strength. 0.3% nylon fibres were used to further improve the mechanical behaviour by controlling micro crack formation, enhancing crack resistance, and improving tensile stress transmission. When GGBS and nylon fibres are used together, SCC’s ductility, toughness, and post-cracking performance are enhanced. The findings of the experiment show improved durability, structural integrity, and 28-day compressive strength. To maintain workability and stability of SCC, however, careful mix design, appropriate curing temperatures, and compatibility between GGBS and superplasticizers are necessary for maximum performance.

Keywords:
Blast furnace slag; Nylon fiber; Self compacting concrete; Crack resilience; Long-term stability

1. INTRODUCTION

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a highly workable concrete that may spread under its own weight, totally fill formwork, and enclose reinforcement without the use of external vibration. SCC thus displays mechanical and fresh properties very different from those of traditional concrete, especially in terms of workability, segregation resistance, and homogeneity. Because of these benefits, complex and thickly strengthened structural members have seen growing adoption of SCC [1,2,3]. Achieving the necessary filling and passing performance in SCC, meanwhile, usually calls for a larger cement content, which results in higher material expenses and a bigger environmental footprint related to cement manufacture. Extensive research has been done on the inclusion of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in SCC to solve these issues [4,5,6]. Using SCMs improves SCC’s general performance and sustainability in addition to lowering cement usage. From both economic and environmental points of view, the partial substitution of cement in SCC has become critical since it helps to lower carbon dioxide emissions, lower energy use, and better resource efficiency [7, 8].

Among several SCMs, Due its dormant hydraulic and pozzolanic characteristics, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) has recognized as a good cement replacement material in SCC. Including GGBS improves the microstructural density of the cementitious matrix and refines the pore structure. This improvement comes from the interaction of GGBS with excess calcium hydroxide produced during cement hydration to create extra calcium silicate hydrate gel. As a result, SCC with GGBS has decreased permeability, better chemical resistance, and better lifespan [9,10,11,12]. Moreover, the enhanced microstructure obtained by employing GGBS helps reinforced concrete structures’ long-term performance by increasing resistance to severe environmental factors including sulfate attack. The GGBS infused SCC mix offers a sustainable option with greater durability in modern construction projects, ensuring a higher service life with less maintenance [13,14,15].

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) has a thick, fine microstructure that lowers permeability and increases compressive strength. This dense matrix also leads to increase the resistance against high temperatures and fire exposure [16,17,18,19]. Common inclusion of fibres in SCC helps to reduce plastic shrinkage cracks by enhancing the properties and post cracking behaviour of concrete. Simultaneously, the addition of micro fibers in to the concrete has been shown to successfully postpone the beginning and propagation of micro-cracks, hence improving the toughness and fracture resistance of concrete [20,21,22]. There are many fibres now in the building scene that might improve the performance of concrete. Among them, glass fibres and steel fibres have found most extensive application in Self Compacting Concrete (SCC). Although they are quite effective, these fibres have several drawbacks: high material cost, alkali sensitivity, little elongation capability, corrosion susceptibility, and perhaps health and safety issues during handling and installation [23,24,25,26,27].

Nylon fibres (NF) have become a good and sustainable alternative in recent years for creating affordable and ecologically friendly HPC. When encased in a cementitious matrix, nylon fibres possess high tensile strength, outstanding crack resistance, increased durability, and perfect immunity to corrosion [28,29,30]. These qualities help concrete composites’ mechanical performance as well as their longevity particularly well. Moreover, the hydrophobic quality of nylon fibers helps their long-term stability and resilience even under harsh circumstances, therefore generating rising scientific interest [31, 32]. By serving as crack-bridging components, nylon fibres have been shown in past research to greatly postpone micro-crack start and propagation, hence improving toughness, impact resistance, and post-cracking behaviour of concrete. Consequently, nylon fibre-reinforced concrete is particularly well suited for uses including pavements, structures under dynamic or repetitive loading, and industrial floors [33,34,35].

Furthermore, several studies have shown that the addition of nylon fibres reduces the segregation and settling of the component materials, therefore improving the stability of fresh concrete. This characteristic is predominantly useful in self-compacting concrete (SCC), where high flowability is required to maintain homogeneity and consistency [36,37,38,39]. Experimental results indicated that concrete reinforced with nylon fibres exhibits prominent improvements in compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths when compared to conventional concrete. These results establish the implication of fibres in controlling fracture propagation and improving post-cracking behaviour. Overall, concrete reinforced with nylon fiber is more ductile and durable [40,41,42,43]. Nylon fibres are a sustainable and effectual reinforcement choice for self-compacting concrete applications due to their enriched mechanical performance, superior crack management, and increased mix stability.

2. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

2.1. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)

GGBS obtained from the ferrosilicon industry was used in this investigation. Cement has partially replaced with gathered furnace slag for the manufacture of concrete [17]. Grade 53 ordinary portland cement has been employed to prepare the specimens. Table 1 shows the chemical characteristics of GGBS as well as OPC.

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Table 1
Physio-chemical properties of portland cement, and blast furnace slag.

2.2. Nylon fiber

Synthetic based strong polyamide nylon fiber is used in concrete as a reinforcing ingredient to improve strength and regulate cracking. Fiber is added at 0.1% to 0.5% by weight of cement. By reducing cracks and limiting their propagation during the early hydration stage, fibres effectively lessen plastic shrinkage cracking and minimize micro-crack formation in concrete. Inclusion of nylon fiber generally improves ductility of the concrete to resist bending, fatigue, and thermal stresses. The physical and mechanical properties of the nylon fibre used in this study are summarized in Table 2.

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Table 2
Properties of nylon fiber.

2.3. Experimental program

The compressive and flexural strengths of traditional mixes, GGBS, and GGBS-NF were studied. For the specimens containing GGBS and NF, the 7, and 28 days compressive and flexural strengths have been computed and the variations in strength characteristics have been assessed. To guarantee the performance of fresh concrete, J-ring, slump flow, U-funnel and T50 slump flow inspections were conducted. Moreover, to evaluate the durability of the concrete, ultrasonic pulse velocity and half-cell potential experiments were carried out. XRD analysis as part of the microstructure study has been done on mixes including control concrete, GGBS, and NF.

2.4. Mix proportions

The mix proportion for M20 grade concrete was determined as 1:1.58:3.19 to evaluate the strength and durability characteristics of concrete incorporating GGBS and NF. A water-to-binder ratio of 0.48 was adopted in accordance with the mix design guidelines specified in IS 10262:2019 [44] notable water was used for the preparation of mixes. M20 is the most commonly used concrete grades in construction and it is highly relevant for practical engineering applications. Hence M20 grade is preferred.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Compressive strength of GGBS and nylon fiber incorporated concrete

GGBS is a latent hydraulic material. In the presence of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) released during Portland cement hydration, GGBS undergoes secondary hydration reactions, forming additional calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel. This increases the overall binder efficiency and contributes to strength development. At 25% replacement, sufficient Portland cement remains to ensure early hydration, while GGBS contributes progressively to strength gain. GGBS particles are typically finer and smoother than cement. Their incorporation improves particle packing density within the paste matrix [45]. Enhanced packing reduces capillary porosity and refines the pore structure, which directly improves compressive strength at both early (7-day) and later (28-day) ages. Figure 1 illustrates the Compressive strength variations of GGBS added mixes.

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Figure 1
Compressive strength variations of GGBS added mixes.

The additional C–S–H formed from the pozzolanic reaction leads to a denser structure. Higher flowability and segregation resistance is essential in SCC, this denser microstructure helps to reduce the micro cracking potential of the mix. GGBS reduces the rate of heat evolution compared to OPC mix which results in reduced thermal cracking. Reduction in thermal and micro cracking enhances the compressive strength at 7 and 28 days.

Particle packing within the cement matrix is enhanced by the finer GGBS particles. As a result, the bonding between aggregate and paste is improved and capillary porosity is decreased. Stress transfer efficiency is increased by a denser transition zone, which helps SCC to improve its compressive strengths [46, 47]. 0.3% nylon fibre insertion improves mechanical performance due to crack-bridging action of fibre. Fibres mainly restrict the spread of micro cracks under strain and regulate plastic and drying shrinkage cracks [42]. This confinement effect improves load carrying capacity and compressive strength at 7 and 28 days by delaying crack widening at a considerable level. Figure 2 illustrates the Compressive strength variations of optimal percentage of GGBS and nylon fiber added mixes.

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Figure 2
Compressive strength variations of optimal percentage of GGBS and nylon fiber added mixes.

3.2. Flexural strength of GGBS and nylon fiber incorporated concrete

GGBS added concrete exhibited better performance when compared to regular concrete, the flexural strength of concrete is greatly increased by the addition of 25% GGBS. The pozzolanic interaction between GGBS and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) generated during cement hydration is mostly responsible for this improvement [48]. More calcium silicate hydrate is produced by this reaction, which improves the pore structure and creates a denser, more uniform microstructure.

The interfacial transition zone (ITZ), which is essential for withstanding tensile stresses during flexural loading, is strengthened by the enhanced microstructural bonding between the cement paste and aggregates. As a result, concrete with 25% GGBS has better load-carrying capacity under bending due to its increased resistance to crack initiation and propagation. Additionally, increased durability and structural performance under flexural stress conditions are a result of the decreased porosity and enhanced matrix continuity. Figure 3 shows the comparison of flexural strength of GGBS added mixes.

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Figure 3
Flexural strength variations of GGBS added mixes.

Compared to traditional concrete, the integration of 0.3% nylon fiber by weight of cement with 25% Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) greatly increases the flexural strength of concrete. Mostly responsible for the improvement is the synergistic effect of pozzolanic reaction and fiber reinforcement. Through its reaction with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), the partial substitution of cement with GGBS advances the production of extra calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel, hence creating a more compact microstructure and better transition zone between the cement paste and aggregates [49].

At the same time, nylon fiber function as micro reinforcement, hence closing micro cracks and postponing crack initiation and growth under flexural strain. This method improves ductility, energy absorption capability, and tensile stress distribution [50]. As a result, the load-carrying capacity, cracking resistance, and general flexural performance of the concrete matrix are all improved by the combined adjustment. Figure 4 shows the flexural strength variations of GGBS and Nylon fiber added mixes.

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Figure 4
Flexural strength variations of GGBS and nylon fiber added mixes.

3.3. Workability variations of GGBS and nylon fiber incorporated concrete

SCC requires high flowability without segregation. GGBS improves rheological properties due to its smooth, glassy texture, reducing internal friction. Better workability allows lower water-to-binder (w/b) ratios when combined with superplasticizers, leading to higher strength. Addition of nylon fiber also significantly contributes in the performance of the self-compacting concrete. Figure 5 shows the J-ring and Slump flow variations of GGBS added mixes.

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Figure 5
J-ring and slump flow variations of GGBS added mixes.

Figure 6 illustrates U-funnel and T50 slump flow variations of GGBS added mixes. If GGBS replacement exceeds about 25%, the overall powder content in the mix increases significantly. GGBS particles are generally finer and have a higher specific surface area than ordinary Portland cement. This increases the total surface area that must be wetted by mixing water. As a result, more water becomes physically adsorbed onto particle surfaces, reducing the amount of free water available for lubrication between aggregates. The paste becomes more cohesive and viscous, leading to reduced slump and slower flow. Additionally, higher GGBS content increases paste density and enhances particle packing, which, while beneficial for strength and durability, increases internal friction and yield stress in the fresh mix.

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Figure 6
U-funnel and T50 slump flow variations of GGBS added mixes.

The excessive GGBS can alter the rheological properties of the cementitious matrix. The higher fines increases the plastic viscosity and producing a stiffer concrete to compact without surplus superplasticizer. The mix may appear sticky and less responsive to vibration [51]. In case of fiber dosage exceeds 0.3%, workability decreases sharply due to mechanical interlocking and increased surface area effects. Nylon fibers create a three-dimensional network within the mix. At higher volumes, fibers tend to overlap and entangle (balling effect), which restricts the mobility of aggregates and disrupts smooth flow [52].

Each fiber also demands additional paste to coat its surface; beyond a certain limit, available paste becomes insufficient to properly lubricate both aggregates and fibers. Furthermore, fibers increase internal friction and resistance to deformation, thereby increasing the concrete’s yield stress and plastic viscosity. The combined effect of high GGBS and excess nylon fibers compounds the reduction in workability, resulting in lower slump, poor compaction characteristics, and greater difficulty in finishing unless water or chemical admixtures are adjusted [53]. Figure 7 and Figure 8 illustrates U-funnel and T50 slump flow variations of GGBS and nylon fiber added mixes.

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Figure 7
J-ring and slump flow variations of GGBS and nylon fiber added mixes.
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Figure 8
U-funnel and T50 slump flow variations of GGBS and nylon fiber added mixes.

3.4. XRD analysis of GGBS and nylon fiber incorporated concrete

X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of concrete incorporating 25% Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) and 0.3% NYLON FIBER provides insight into the crystalline hydration products and phase evolution of the blended system. At 25% GGBS replacement, XRD patterns typically show reduced intensity of unhydrated clinker phases such as tricalcium silicate (C3S) and dicalcium silicate (C2S) compared to control mixes. Prominent diffraction peaks corresponding to calcium hydroxide (portlandite, CH) are present but often with slightly lower intensity due to the pozzolanic reaction of GGBS. X-ray diffraction of CC and GGBS25-NF0.3 mixes are depicted in Figure 9.

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Figure 9
X-ray diffraction of CC and GGBS25-NF0.3 mixes.

The amorphous hump in the 20°–35° (2θ) range becomes more pronounced, indicating better calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel formation, which is primarily non-crystalline. Minor crystalline phases, such as ettringite and calcite, may also appear depending on the curing process and the degree of carbonation. Secondary hydration, in which slag mixes with calcium hydroxide during cement hydration to produce additional C–S–H, is supported by the addition of 25% GGBS. This process is demonstrated by a decrease in calcium hydroxide peak intensity and an increase in amorphous content [54]. As a result, the XRD findings suggest a more complex pore structure and a tighter cementitious matrix.

The crystalline phase composition observed by XRD is not substantially changed by the addition of nylon fibre at a volume percentage of 0.3%. Nylon does not produce distinct diffraction peaks within the typical scanning area since it is a polymeric material with a largely amorphous structure. Due to the XRD patterns of fiber-reinforced concrete’s high concentration of cement hydration products and residual aggregate phases, particularly quartz. In general, XRD research indicates that nylon fibres primarily contribute mechanical reinforcement rather than altering the chemical phase composition of the cementitious matrix, ensuring the active engrossment of slag in the hydration process [55].

3.5. Influence of GGBS and nylon fiber on half-cell potential values of concrete

The prospect of steel reinforcement corrosion in concrete is assessed using Half-Cell Potential (HCP) analysis. The measured potential range of –169 mV to –563 mV (during 180 days) in the control mix shows an upper corrosion risk with time. Potentials greater than –350 mV indicated the chance of active corrosion in steel (>90%), based on the ASTM C876 recommendations. The test value of –563 mV indicates increasing corrosion activity of the steel in control mix, perhaps as a result of increased permeability and simpler moisture and chloride intrusion [56]. Conversely, within the same time period, the concrete containing 25% GGBS and 0.3% nylon fibre exhibits a relatively smaller negative potential range of –152 mV to –519 mV. A lower likelihood and slower pace of corrosion are indicated by the decrease in negativity. Figure 10 depicts the Half-cell potential values of CC and GGBS25-NF0.3 mixes.

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Figure 10
Half-cell potential values of CC and GGBS25-NF0.3 mixes.

GGBS, which improves durability through pozzolanic processes, is the main cause. GGBS reduces permeability and refines the pore structure by consuming calcium hydroxide and producing more C-S-H gel. By preventing hostile substances like water, oxygen, and chlorides from penetrating, this denser matrix limits electrochemical corrosion processes at the steel surface [57]. Additionally, the ionic mobility required for the development of corrosion cells is delayed by the decreased connection of capillary pores. Nylon fibres aid in the regulation of shrinkage and micro cracking, but they have no direct effect on electrochemical reactions. Fibres minimise routes for moisture and chloride intrusion by reducing crack breadth and propagation. Generally, fiber and GGBS added mix lowers the negative half-cell potentials and indicated an improved corrosion resistance due to pore refinement, reduced permeability, and better crack control compared to the conventional control concrete.

3.6. Influence of GGBS and nylon fiber on ultrasonic pulse velocity values of concrete

The findings of the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) test show that adding 25% GGBS and 0.3% nylon fibre (NF) to concrete clearly improves its internal quality and homogeneity. With UPV values of 3011 m/s at 7 days and 3196 m/s at 28 days, the control mix demonstrated typical hydration progression and a slow densification of the cementitious matrix with curing age. Further evidence of sustained hydration and a gradual decrease in internal voids is provided by the rise in UPV from 7 to 28 days. The adjusted mix comprising GGBS and NF, on the other hand, showed much higher UPV values of 3379 m/s at 7 days and 4094 m/s at 28 days, indicating a microstructure that was significantly denser, more uniform, and less prone to defects.

The synergistic activity of GGBS and nylon fibres in altering the cementitious system is responsible for this improvement. GGBS’s tiny particle size and latent hydraulic properties improve particle packing and encourage secondary hydration, which results in more calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel formation. This procedure reduces micro voids and discontinuities in the matrix by strengthening the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) and refining the pore structure. By enhancing matrix continuity and elastic stiffness, these mechanisms enable ultrasonic waves to pass through concrete more quickly. Figure 11 illustrates the variation observed for the corresponding test across the GGBS and nylon fibre incorporated mixes.

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Figure 11
Ultrasonic pulse velocity values of CC and GGBS25-NF0.3 mixes.

4. CONCLUSION

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) effectively strikes a compromise between long-term mechanical performance and early-age strength development by substituting 25% GGBS for cement. While the pozzolanic reaction of GGBS with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) gradually produces extra calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel, sufficient hydration of Portland cement at this replacement level guarantees good compressive strength at seven days [58]. The concrete matrix’s microstructure becomes denser and more refined as a result of this process. By reducing micro cracks, enhancing tensile stress transfer, and preventing crack propagation under applied loads, the addition of 0.3% nylon fibres further improves the performance of SCC. These fibres improve the concrete’s ductility, toughness, and post-cracking behaviour. As a result, the united adaptation leads to improved durability, superior structural integrity, and enriched compressive and flexural strength. Conversely, in order to maintain the flowability and stability necessary for SCC, obtaining these advantages necessitates appropriate mix proportioning, suitable curing conditions, and compatibility between GGBS and superplasticizers.

5. DATA AVAILABILITY

The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Corresponding Author:

Arunvivek Gobichettipalayam Kumar, anitha.kandukuri2@gmail.com, arun.vivekgk@gmail.com

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    28 Sept 2026
  • Date of issue
    2026

History

  • Received
    14 Mar 2026
  • Accepted
    07 Aug 2026
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