Use of acerola pulp (Malpighia emarginata) in the marination of sardine fillets (Opisthonema oglinum) and its effect on technological, physicochemical, and microbiological qualities

Uso da polpa de acerola (Malpighia emarginata) na marinação de filés de sardinha (Opisthonema oglinum) e seu efeito nas qualidades tecnológicas, físico-químicas e microbiológicas

ABSTRACT

Sardine (Opisthonema oglinum) is the most consumed fish by Brazilians, and its nutritional composition is rich in vitamins, fatty acids, and high biological value proteins, in addition to having an affordable commercial value. Acerola (Malpighia emarginata) is a fruit with a wide geographical distribution and a high content of ascorbic acid and anthocyanins, which play an antioxidant role and have regenerative activity in the human body. This study evaluated the technological, physicochemical, and microbiological aspects of marinated fillets of sardines, using different concentrations (25%, 50%, and 100%) of acerola pulp with the addition of 2.5% sodium chloride, stored under refrigeration for 14 days. Regarding the physicochemical characteristics, all treatments with acerola pulp positively improved the marinade liquid uptake, water-holding capacity, cooking loss, tenderness, and juiciness of the fish. Microbiological analyses of the sardine fillets marinated in acerola pulp showed a beneficial effect in the counts of total psychrophilic, total mesophilic, and Staphylococcus spp. during the study period. Finally, this study demonstrated the feasibility of marination with acerola pulp as a preservation method capable of improving certain physicochemical aspects and extending the shelf life of this type of fish

Keywords
preservation; citrus fruits; fish; shelf life; food technology

RESUMO

A sardinha (Opisthonema oglinum) é o pescado mais consumido pelos brasileiros, e sua composição nutricional é rica em vitaminas, ácidos graxos e proteínas de alto valor biológico, além de apresentar um valor comercial acessível. A acerola (Malpighia emarginata) é uma fruta com ampla distribuição geográfica e elevado teor de ácido ascórbico e antocianinas, que desempenham papel antioxidante e possuem atividade regeneradora no organismo humano. Este estudo avaliou os aspectos tecnológicos, físico-químicos e microbiológicos de filés de sardinha marinados, utilizando diferentes concentrações (25%, 50% e 100%) de polpa de acerola com adição de 2,5% de cloreto de sódio, armazenados sob refrigeração por 14 dias. Em relação às características físico-químicas, todos os tratamentos com polpa de acerola melhoraram positivamente a absorção do líquido de marinação, capacidade de retenção de água, perda por cocção, maciez e suculência do pescado. As análises microbiológicas dos filés de sardinha marinados em polpa de acerola mostraram um efeito benéfico nas contagens de psicrófilos totais, mesófilos totais e Staphylococcus spp. durante o período do estudo. Por fim, este estudo demonstrou a viabilidade da marinação em polpa de acerola como método de conservação capaz de melhorar certos aspectos físico-químicos e aumentar o tempo de prateleira desse tipo de pescado.

Palavras-chave
conservação; frutas cítricas; pescado; tempo de prateleira; tecnologia de alimentos

1. Introduction

Fish represents a large portion of the animal product market in Brazil and worldwide, with China being the largest producer of these inputs. The Brazilian production of farmed fish was 968,745 tons in 2024, representing an increase of 9.21% compared to the previous year (887,029 t), which demonstrates the robustness of national fish farming. In the same period, there was a 102% increase in Brazilian exports of fishery and aquaculture products, with the United States being the largest consumer of Brazilian products, followed by Peru, China, Canada, and Japan (Brasil, 2025).

The most consumed fish in Brazil are tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), mainly farmed, and salmon (Salmo salar), generally imported from other countries. Other very popular fish, especially those from extractive fishing, include sardines (Opisthonema oglinum), yellow croaker (Cynoscion acoupa), and croaker (Micropogonias furniere) (Veloso et al. 2022; Brasil, 2025). The sardine is a species of the Clupeidae family that occurs along the western Atlantic coast, with a wide geographical distribution ranging from the Gulf of Maine in the United States of America, Bermuda, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, the West Indies, to Brazil (Whitehead, 1985). In addition to its low price, the fact that it is a fish with attractive functional and nutritional characteristics for consumers makes the sardine one of the most consumed species in Brazil (Pereira & Tenuta-Filho, 2005; Veloso et al., 2022). In Bahia, more than 600 traditional fishing communities (coastal/riverine) depend directly on artisanal fishing, which has its values and develops techniques that ensure the sustainability of their families and fish stocks (Rios, 2019).

Refrigeration, freezing, salting, and smoking are the most commonly used technological processes for preserving fish. In addition, in recent years, other methods for fish preservation have been studied, such as marination (Jääskeläinen et al., 2023; Öz & Uçak, 2023). Marination is a process that can be used to extend the shelf life of meat products and improve their organoleptic characteristics. There are several marination methods, the most common being injection, which involves using needles to inject the marinade directly into the product, and immersion, which involves submerging the fish (Öz & Uçak, 2023) and meat (Beltrán-Cotta et al., 2023) in the marinade solution. This method is considered simpler and is widely used, where different acidic solutions, either alone or in combination, are employed in the marination of fish, with most being made with citric, acetic, gluconic, lactic, malic, and tartaric acids (Babikova et al., 2020; Jääskeläinen et al., 2023; Öz & Uçak, 2023). However, due to the higher quantity of amino acids and carbohydrates, the effects of marinades on fish-based products are different from those observed in beef and poultry (Jääskeläinen et al., 2023). Therefore, further studies are needed to evaluate the effects of other types of marinating on different fish species.

Recent studies have evaluated the effect of fish marination using various marinades: vinegar (Boutheina et al., 2023), spices (sugar, pepper, and herbs) (Jääskeläinen et al., 2023), black tea, oolong tea, yellow tea, green tea, and white tea (Nie et al., 2025), as well as lemon juice (Öz & Uçak, 2023). However, no study has evaluated the effect of acerola pulp (Malpighia emarginata) as a marinade for fish. Acerola is a fruit widely produced in Brazil, with 60,966 tons in 2017, of which 2,023 tons were in Bahia (IBGE, 2017). In addition to containing a high vitamin C content and other functional nutrients such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and polyphenols (Hanamura et al., 2008). Acerola is also rich in anthocyanins and carotenoids (Maciel et al., 2010). Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of marination with acerola pulp on sardine fillets' technological, physicochemical, and microbiological qualities.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Sardines and acerola pulp acquisition

Approximately 2 kg of fresh, whole sardines (Figure 1A) were purchased from local markets on the same day they were caught. They were transported in isotermic boxes containing recyclable ice to the Meat Inspection and Technology Laboratory (LabCarne) at the Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), where they were kept at refrigerated temperatures (4 ºC) until analysis.

Figure 1
A – Species of sardine (Opisthonema oglinum); B – Butterfly fillets.

In the laboratory, the sardines were identified, eviscerated, flaked, and their fins, heads, tails, and spines were removed, resulting in a “butterfly fillet” with skin, which was then weighed individually. This technique involves splitting the fish down the middle, leaving it connected along the back or belly, to open it flat like a butterfly's wings (Figure 1B).

About 3 liters of pasteurized, frozen acerola pulp, without added water, were purchased from local markets within their expiration dates. They were transported in isotermic boxes with recyclable ice to LabCarne and kept frozen until use. To defrost the pulps, they were placed in refrigerators at 4 °C. After defrosting, the pH (2.96) of the pulps was measured.

2.2. Marination process

Four different treatments of marinated sardine fillets were prepared (in duplicate) and replicated on two different days. The marinade liquids were prepared as follows: 25% acerola pulp (pH 2.96) mixed with 75% of 2.5% NaCl solution (T25), 50% acerola pulp mixed with 50% of 2.5% NaCl solution (T50), and 100% acerola pulp added to 2.5% NaCl (T100). A non-marinated sample (100% of water added 2.5% NaCl without acerola pulp) was used as a control (T0). Then, randomly, five sardine fillets with skin facing down were completely immersed in high-density polyethylene trays (225 mm x 150 mm x 60 mm) (Figure 2A) covered with a plastic lid, for each treatment x four treatments (T0, T25, T50, and T100) x two replications, resulting in 40 butterfly fillets, and stored at 4 °C for 14 days for analysis (Figure 2B).

Figure 2
A - Sardine (Opisthonema oglinum) marinated in acerola pulp; B - Marinated butterfly fillets (T0, T25, T50, and T100, from left to right), after 14 days stored at 4 °C for analysis.

2.3. Technological properties

2.3.1. Marinade liquid uptake

Marinade liquid uptake (MLU) was determined as described by Fadıloglu and Serdaroglu (2018). Butterfly fillets were weighed before and after the marination process, and the percentage of MLU was calculated as follows:

$MLU\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)=\frac{marinatedfillet-unmarinatedfillet}{unmarinatedfillet}\times 100$

2.3.2. Water-holding capacity

Water-holding capacity (WHC) was determined as described by Rupasinghe et al. (2022) and Beltrán-Cotta et al. (2023), with slight modifications. Three fragments (3 g) from each sardine fillet were carefully placed between two sheets of filter paper (No. 1; Whatman International, Maidstone, UK) and pressed between two acrylic plates. The set was pressed for 5 minutes and weighed 3 kg. Then, the samples were weighed again, and the WHC value was calculated as follows:

$WHC\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)=100-\left(\frac{Initialweight-Finalweight}{Initialweight}\right)x100$

2.3.3. Cooking loss

The evaluation of cooking loss (CL) was done according to Yusop et al. (2012). After 14 days of marination, the sardine fillets were removed from the marinated liquid, weighed individually, and cooked for 6 minutes on a marbled ceramic plate (Grill Large Philco Stone - PGR03P - Joinville, SC), at 72 °C. The samples were turned over every minute to ensure uniform cooking. Samples were then cooled to room temperature (25 °C), blotted with a paper towel to remove excess water on the surface, and reweighed. CL was calculated as follows:

$CL\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)=\left(\frac{Rawweight-Cookedweight}{Rawweight}\right)\times 100$

2.4. Physicochemical properties

2.4.1. pH

The pH was determined using a pH pHmeter (model Mpa-210; Tecnopon, São Paulo, Brazil) previously calibrated with standard buffers (pH 4.00 and 7.00 at 25 ◦C). The measurement was conducted on 10 g of sardine fillets homogenized in 90 mL of distilled water. The analysis was performed in triplicate.

2.4.2. Texture profile analysis

Instrumental texture profile analysis (TPA) was performed using a TAXT Express texture analyzer (Stable Micro Systems Ltd., Surrey, England), as described by Beltrán-Cotta et al. (2023). Textural parameters were measured using a doublecompression cycle test (5-s delay between cycles) with an SMS P/0–5 probe at 2 mm/s, using a 5-kg load cell. The samples were cut into slices of 2 cm × 2 cm × 1 cm, to analyze the following parameters: hardness (Newton, N), defined as the force necessary to reach a deformation; springiness (mm), defined as the distance that the food recovers during the time between the end of the first compression and the beginning of the second compression; cohesiveness, defined as the ratio between the area under the second curve to that of the first curve; and chewiness (N × mm), defined as the product of hardness, cohesiveness, and springiness. The texture parameters were measured in five distinct samples (quintuplicate).

2.4.3. Instrumental Color

Instrumental color measurements were carried out in quintuplicate using a Chroma Meter CR-5 (Minolta Business Technologies Inc., Tokyo, Japan) equipped with illuminant D-65, a 10 ° standard observer, and an 8 mm aperture, following American Meat Science Association (AMSA) guidelines (AMSA, 2012). The instrumental color CIELAB (lightness - L*, redness - a*, yellowness - b*) was measured on the surface of butterfly fillet samples.

2.5. Microbiological analysis

A 10 g sample of each butterfly fillet was aseptically transferred to a stomacher bag and homogenized with 90 mL of sterile 0.1% peptone water (Kasvi, São José dos Pinhais, Brazil) in a stomacher (LS Logen 1901, Logen Scientific, São Paulo, Brazil) for 2 min. Serial dilutions were made with 0.1% sterile peptone water (9 mL).

Plate count agar (PCA; BD Difco, Le Pont de Claix, France) was used for total mesophilic aerobic counts (48 h at 35 °C) and total psychrophilic aerobic counts (7 days at 4 °C). Baird-Parker agar (BPA; Kasvi, São José dos Pinhais, Brazil) was used for coagulase-positive staphylococci (48 h at 35 °C). Violet red bile agar (VRBA; Kasvi, São José dos Pinhais, Brazil) was used to enumerate Enterobacteriaceae (24 h at 35 °C). The presence or absence of Salmonella in 25 g of the sample was also analyzed, according to Silva et al. (2018).

2.6. Statistical analysis

The results of the analyses were evaluated using analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the SPSS 25.0 program (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) to analyze the effects of different concentrations of acerola pulp with 2.5% NaCl as marinade liquid on the technological, physicochemical, and microbiological properties of sardine butterfly fillets after 14 days of refrigerated storage. The means were compared using Tukey's HSD test, and differences were considered significant when p < 0.05.

3 Results and discussion

3.1. Technological properties

3.1.1. Marinade liquid uptake

The results of marinade liquid uptake (MLU) by butterfly fillets after 14 days at 4 °C ranged from 10.82% (T25) to 25.29% (T0), as shown in Table 1. MLU is linked to the gradual diffusion and penetration of acerola pulp into the interior of butterfly fillets, leading to the lysis of myogenic fibronectin, swelling of muscle fibers, and the generation of distension pressure. Marinade absorption depends on factors such as the type of meat, marination method, duration, and the osmotic pressure of the marinade formulation (Liu & Zhang, 2022; İncili et al., 2023). Laub-Ekgreen et al. (2018) reported that the concentration and duration of brine, the type of marinade, and the storage time can influence the diffusion coefficient in the fish musculature. According to the authors, the greatest changes occur in the first few days of marinating, and only small changes are observed during prolonged storage periods. The 14-day storage period may explain the absence of significant differences found in the present study.

Table 1
Technological properties and pH of butterfly sardine fillets marinated with different concentrations of acerola pulp for 14 days under refrigeration.

Parameters	Treatments
	T0	T25	T50	T100
MLU (%)	25.29 ± 0.07a	10.82 ± 4.14a	22.61 ± 4.70a	13.81 ± 7.22a
WHC (%)	65.31 ± 0.18a	84.73 ± 0.18c	79.70 ± 0.08bc	71.35 ± 0.24b
CL (%)	36.93 ± 0.81bc	32.57 ± 1.10c	41.57 ± 3.10ab	45.64 ± 0.27a
pH	5.69 ± 0.22a	4.75 ± 0.12b	4.66 ± 0.11b	4.16 ± 0.58c

• Means ± Standard Error. Different lowercase superscripts (a-c) indicate differences among treatments (p < 0.05). T0: Nonmarinated sample; T25: 25% acerola pulp marination; T50: 50% acerola pulp marination; T100: 100% acerola pulp marination.

3.2. Water-holding capacity

Excessive water loss can lead to undesirable products from both an economic and sensory standpoint (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2021). The results for water-holding capacity (WHC) by butterfly fillets after 14 days at 4 °C ranged from 65.31% (T0) to 84.73% (T25), indicating an improvement (p < 0.05) in this technological characteristic of fillets marinated in acerola pulp (Table 1). The characteristics of the fish musculature (Boutheina et al., 2023) and the storage time of the fillets in marinades (Erol et al., 2021) may explain the WHC observed in the present study. As reported by Laub-Ekgreen et al. (2018), marinade concentration can influence diffusion coefficients in the fish's musculature, which may explain the observed WHC results.

3.3. Cooking loss

The cooking loss of marinated and non-marinated sardine samples is shown in Table 1. Lower cooking losses are desirable, as they affect the meat's juiciness. Treatment T25 showed the lowest value (32.57%) among the marinated and non-marinated samples. This can be attributed to the higher waterholding capacity (WHC) observed, as this treatment retained more weight after cooking. Similar results have been reported in other studies, where cooking losses of 43.20%-47.36% were observed in lean boneless beef rounds (Gargi & Sengun, 2021), and 39.1%-47.4% in poultry meat marinated with koruk juice (Sengun et al., 2019).

3.4. Phyisicochemical properties

3.4.1. pH

The pH analysis of butterfly fillets, not marinated and marinated with acerola pulp, after 14 days showed that treatment T100 had the lowest pH (4.16), followed by T50 (4.66), T25 (4.75), and T0 (5.69) (Table 1). This can be explained by the acidity of the acerola pulp used in this study, which has a pH of 2.96. Other studies have found that acerola pulp has a pH ranging from 3.20 to 3.68 (Silva et al., 2016; Guedes et al., 2020). Similar results were found in a study that marinated common carp (Cyprinus carpio) meat with lemon juice, with 60% lemon juice showing the greatest pH reduction (Öz & Uçak, 2023). As observed in the present study, marination with acerola pulp acidified the pH, allowing the sardine fillet to be preserved for 14 days under refrigeration.

3.4.2. Texture profile analysis

Table 2 shows the hardness (N), chewiness (N x mm), springiness (mm), and cohesiveness values of the marinated sardine fillets. The hardness values of the fillets marinated in acerola pulp, observed after 14 days of storage, ranged from 0.302 N (T50) to 0.903 N (T25). The fillets marinated with 50% (T50) and 100% (T100) acerola pulp did not differ from each other (p > 0.05) or from the control group (T0). However, the hardness values of the fillets marinated with 25% acerola pulp (T25) differ (p < 0.05) from those of the other treatments (T50 and T100), including the control group (T0). Our results differ from those found by Zhang et al. (2025), who observed a reduction in the hardness parameter in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) marinated in a solution composed of 5% cooking wine, 1.5% NaCl, and 3% ginger.

Table 2
Texture profile of butterfly sardine fillets marinated with different concentrations of acerola pulp for 14 days under refrigeration.

Parameters		Treatments
	T0	T25	T50	T100
Hardness (N)	0.388 ± 0.901b	0.903 ± 0.328a	0.302 ± 0.181b	0.525 ± 0.198b
Chewiness (N x mm)	339.9 ± 211.6ª	68.9 ± 24.6b	18.4 ± 1.5b	44.7 ± 12.5b
Springiness (mm)	10.59 ± 5.08ª	0.98 ± 0.01b	1.00 ± 0.02b	1.63 ± 0.91b
Cohesiveness	0.734 ± 0.079a	0.750 ± 0.007a	0.594 ± 0.063b	0.596 ± 0.033b

• Means ± Standard Error. Different lowercase superscripts (a-b) indicate differences among treatments (p < 0.05). T0: Nonmarinated sample; T25: 25% acerola pulp marination; T50: 50% acerola pulp marination; T100: 100% acerola pulp marination.

Although all fragments used for the texture profile analysis were standardized (slices of 2 cm × 2 cm × 1 cm) in our study, the possibility that the fragments used in the hardness assessment in the T25 group had a greater amount of connective tissue, characteristic not researched in the present study, cannot be ruled out, which could justify the higher values for this parameter in the T25 group. Laub-Ekgreen et al. (2018) reported that the concentration and duration of brine, the type of marinade, and the storage time can influence the diffusion coefficient in the fish musculature. The high standard deviation values of hardness parameters can also explain the differences found in fillets from different treatment groups and the control. Regarding chewiness, the values ranged from 18.4 (T50) to 339.9 (T0), with a positive effect (p < 0.05) observed in all treatments (T25, T50, and T100) when compared to the control group (T0). These results are in agreement with those obtained with marinated grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) conducted by Zhang et al. (2025).

The natural characteristics of the acerola pulp used in this study, especially its low pH (2.96), contribute to the degradation and solubilization of proteins present in connective tissue, resulting in a decrease in the diameter and thickness of the muscle fiber. This demonstrates that marinating in acerola pulp increases the tenderness and juiciness of the fish meat, two sensory attributes highly valued by consumers.

3.4.2. Instrumental color

The lightness parameter (L*) showed the lowest value in treatment T100 (59.96), which contained 100% acerola pulp marinade. This can be explained by the higher acidity (pH 4.16) observed in sardine fillets marinated in 100% acerola pulp (T100), which weakens protein bonds and alters light reflectance. Treatment T0 (60.50) and T50 (61.03) showed no significant difference, while treatment T25 (62.51) had the highest value for this parameter (Table 3). The L* value was significantly higher in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) marinated (Zhang et al., 2025).

Table 3
Instrumental color parameters in marinated sardine fillets in acerola pulp.

Parameters	Treatments
	T0	T25	T50	T100
Lightness (L*)	60.50 ± 2.11ab	62.51 ± 0.49a	61.03 ± 1.55ab	59.96 ± 0.11b
Redness (a*)	1.19 ± 0.42d	7.24 ± 0.14b	3.03 ± 0.47c	8.97 ± 0.10a
Yellowness (b*)	6.86 ± 0.88d	16.04 ± 0.20b	11.17 ± 1.23c	20.73 ± 0.39a

• Means ± Standard Error. Different lowercase superscripts (a-b) indicate differences among treatments (p < 0.05). T0: Nonmarinated sample; T25: 25% acerola pulp marination; T50: 50% acerola pulp marination; T100: 100% acerola pulp marination.

Redness (a*) ranged from 1.1 (T0) to 8.97 (T100). Treatment T25 (7.24) presented a higher a* value than T50 (3.03) (Table 3). In contrast, Babikova et al. (2020) observed a reduction in red color (a*) in marinated Atlantic sprat (Sprattus sprattus) during the storage period. They associated this discoloration with the acidic conditions of the marinade and the increased autooxidation of myoglobin in fish meat, which was not observed in our study using sardine (Opisthonema oglinum) fillets. This parameter is directly associated with the quality of red meat, with higher values indicating a redder color in the sample. However, considering that sardine meat is not red, but has a lighter color, we can attribute the increase in red color (a*) to the action of acerola pulp in the marinated fillets. Acerola is rich in carotenoids (Miskinis et al., 2023), which directly influence the results of this analysis.

One of the most important sensory characteristics of meat products is their color. At the time of purchase, this attribute significantly influences the consumer's decision (Zuanazzi et al., 2016). Commercializing marinated sardine fillets in acerola pulp could be a good option to influence consumers to purchase the product, as it not only has a more attractive color but is also preserved naturally.

3.5. Microbiological analysis

Despite of high-water activity and perishability related by others authors (Capaccione et al., 2011; Ray & Bhunia, 2013; Babikova et al., 2020), fish products can experience a delay in deterioration when subjected to preservation processes using different marination liquids, including the use of citrus fruits such as acerola capable of reducing the pH of the marinade and increasing the shelf life of the fish.

As shown in Table 4, the microbiological count (Log CFU/g) of sardine fillets marinated in acerola pulp, when compared to that of non-marinated fillets, decreased proportionally to the increase in acerola pulp concentration, with better results for mesophilic (T100: <1.0 Log CFU/g) and psychrophilic (T100: 4.56 Log CFU/g) counts, contributing to extending the shelf life of the marinated fish by 14 days. Similar results were found in the study carried out by Kilinc and Cakli (2004) with another species of sardine (Sardine pilchardus) marinated in a solution composed of acetic acid (7%) and NaCl (14%) for 22 days at 4 °C, which was able to inhibit the growth of microorganisms in the fish samples. Divergent results were observed by Jääskeläinen et al. (2023) when studying the effect of marination on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fillets. The authors observed that marination had no effect on the concentration of microorganisms in the marinated fillets when compared to the control.

Brazilian legislation does not present a specific microbiological standard for marinated fish. However, for fish in brine, it establishes a maximum limit of 100 units for E. coli and the absence of Salmonella (Brasil, 2022). Therefore, the antimicrobial activity of the marinade with acerola pulp at different concentrations can be demonstrated by the reduction of spoilage microorganisms (total mesophilic and psychrophilic), as well as the control of pathogens (Staphylococcus, E. coli, and Salmonella) throughout the storage period of the marinated sardine fillets. Similar results were found in a study conducted by Alfonzo et al. (2017) when studying the effect of lemon (Citrus limon) essential oils on the concentration of microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria, Staphylococcus, and Enterobacteriaceae in salted sardines stored for 150 days.

The marination process has been used in the preservation of red meat and chicken, resulting from the combination of carbohydrates with acetic acid, demonstrating various positive aspects, including the control of the microbiota in these products (Nieminen et al., 2012; Beltrán-Cotta et al., 2023). The composition of – fish muscle meat differs from red meat and chicken in terms of carbohydrate and amino acid content. Fish generally contain more free amino acids and nitrogenous compounds (Abraha et al., 2018; Beltrán & Bellés, 2019). Therefore, considering that the effect of marinade on fish is still poorly understood, the results found in our study contribute to a better understanding of the effects of marinade with acerola pulp on the microbiota and preservation of sardines.

Table 4
Microbiological counts (Log CFU/g of marinated and non-marinated sardines after storage at 4 ºC for 14 days.

	Treatments
	T0	T25	T50	T100
Mesophilic	5.81	3.77	3.20	< 1.0
Psychrophilic	8.18	5.46	4.73	4.56
Staphylococcus spp.	< 1.0	< 1.0	< 1.0	< 1.0
E. coli	Abs	Abs	Abs	Abs
Salmonella	Abs	Abs	Abs	Abs

• CFU: Colony forming units; Abs: Absent; T0: Non marinated sample; T25: 25% acerola pulp marination; T50: 50% acerola pulp marination; T100: 100% acerola pulp marination.

4. Conclusion

Studies using citrus fruits in fish marinades are still relatively scarce. According to the scientific literature, this is the first study to evaluate the effect of acerola pulp (Malpighia emarginata), a tropical fruit widely cultivated in Brazil and other countries of the Americas, on the technological, physicochemical, and microbiological characteristics of sardine fillets marinated for 14 days under refrigeration. Sardine (Opisthonema oglinum) was chosen for this study because it is one of the most common and frequently caught fish along the Brazilian coast, as well as one of the most consumed fish in the world.

As observed in this study, marinating with acerola pulp demonstrated the viability of this method for preserving sardines. The treatment with 50% acerola pulp obtained the best texture parameters, while all treatments had a positive effect on chewiness. Furthermore, the reduction in pH in all treatments improved color parameters (redness and yellowness) and contributed to the microbiological quality and preservation of sardines for a period of 14 days under refrigeration.

The use of natural preservatives in food, such as acerola pulp in sardine marinades, can have a positive impact on the industrialization and sale of sardines, as well as potentially increasing fish consumption among current and new consumers, since it represents an additional alternative to products without chemical preservatives.

Acknowledgments

To the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and the Institutional Program for Scientific Initiation Scholarships (PIBIC) of the Federal University of Bahia (UFBA) for the academic scholarships granted.

• Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process
  During the preparation of this work, the authors used Chat GPT to English grammar revision. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Data Availability

Data will be made available on request.

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Edited by

• Editor:
  José Givanildo da Silva

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  08 May 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  24 July 2025
• Accepted
  19 Dec 2025