THERMODYNAMICS TEACHING IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS AT LOCAL NORMAL UNIVERSITIES

Abstract

Thermodynamics is a crucial component of the inorganic chemistry curriculum in local normal universities. Currently, the teaching of this subject faces several practical issues, including ambiguous content positioning, poor connection between high school and college education, significant cognitive barriers for students, and insufficient class hours. This paper proposes a comprehensive reform approach centered on “content reconstruction - method innovation - technology empowerment”. It simplifies theoretical teaching through the “borrowing” approach, strengthens the logical connection between thermodynamics and the four major equilibria as well as the properties of elements, builds a knowledge map and an artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted hybrid teaching model, and integrates elements of ideological and political education into the curriculum. Practical results show that this approach effectively enhances students’ ability to integrate knowledge and their scientific literacy, significantly improves teaching quality, and provides a reference for teaching optimization in similar universities.

Keywords:
inorganic chemistry; thermodynamics; teaching reform; blended teaching.

INTRODUCTION

Inorganic Chemistry is a required course for first-year students in chemistry, chemical engineering, pharmaceutical engineering, materials science, and biology, and is often their first exposure to professional-level chemistry. It is essential for building disciplinary literacy and developing core chemical thinking skills. However, university instruction in this subject differs significantly from high school chemistry in content focus, teaching methods, and pace - leading to student anxiety, shallow understanding, and weak problem-solving abilities. Based on years of teaching experience, the author finds these issues are most evident in the thermodynamics unit. The challenges stem from both the topic’s inherent difficulty and students’ struggles to adapt to new academic environments and learning expectations. To address them, Inorganic Chemistry instructors must help students move beyond passive learning habits and adopt more independent, critical approaches. Doing so not only supports effective learning in early college but also strengthens student engagement in chemistry and improves overall talent development.¹-³

An analysis of the inorganic chemistry knowledge system shows that chemical thermodynamics is central to course instruction. It allows quantitative assessment of chemical equilibrium - enhancing the scientific rigor of the subject - and provides a foundation for linking the classic “four major equilibria” with other key topics. While structural theory, the four major equilibria, and element and compound properties remain core content, thermodynamics connects these areas and deserves a prominent role.⁴-⁶ Understanding its place in the curriculum is essential for improving teaching quality and student learning.⁷,⁸

This paper examines challenges in teaching and learning the thermodynamics unit in Inorganic Chemistry. Based on our teaching experience, we analyze the root causes and propose practical solutions, offering insights that can help similar institutions address comparable issues.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Thermodynamics teaching challenges in Inorganic Chemistry at local normal universities

Content depth, tight schedule, and poor high school chemistry alignment

At Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, first-year chemistry students use the fifth edition of Inorganic Chemistry by Jilin, Wuhan, and Nankai Universities (Higher Education Press), which follows a “structure-to-property” approach. Thermodynamics and reaction kinetics are covered in Chapters 2 and 3, between basic concepts (Chapter 1) and chemical equilibrium (Chapter 4). With only about 130 class hours for the course across Shaanxi’s normal universities, teaching is tightly scheduled.⁹,¹⁰ Although high school chemistry introduces reaction heat effects, these topics are typically reviewed in just 4 hours at university. Student assessments show limited understanding.

A comparison of high school (People’s Education Press) and university thermodynamics content (see Table 1) reveals a large gap in depth and poor alignment.¹¹ To address this, three practical strategies are recommended: first, simplify theory by focusing on key results - such as Q_V = ∆U and Q_P = ∆H (where Q_V is the constant-volume heat, ∆U is the change in thermodynamic energy, Q_P is the constant-pressure heat, ∆H is the enthalpy), and noting that ∆H ≈ ∆U for solids and liquids, avoiding lengthy derivations to reduce cognitive load. Second, center instruction on Gibbs free energy (∆G = ∆H - T∆S, where ∆S is the entropy), guiding students to apply it across solubility, acid-base, redox, and complexation equilibria - the “four major equilibria” - to build unified understanding. Third, use knowledge graphs and artificial intelligence (AI) tools to map connections between high school and university topics, identify gaps, and deliver targeted support to underprepared students. Thermodynamics is abstract and often seen as disconnected from real life, yet it underpins quantitative analysis of all four major equilibria. If taught too briefly, students struggle later; if overemphasized, it shifts focus from core inorganic themes and duplicates physical chemistry content. Balancing its scope, timing, and integration with prior knowledge is essential for effective teaching.

Table 1
Thermodynamics content: high school vs. college inorganic chemistry

Senior high school chemistry	College inorganic chemistry	Curriculum bridging strategies
Understanding enthalpy change and energy conversion; The definition of enthalpy change; Understanding Hess’s law and applications	understand heat and work concepts and calculate volume work; calculate reaction heat at constant pressure and volume; understand enthalpy change and thermochemical equations; calculate enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy changes; use Gibbs free energy changes to determine reaction direction; calculate the thermodynamic equilibrium constant	compare high school and university approaches using the neutralization heat experiment; design an “aluminum-thermal reaction’’ task for students to deduce volume work effects independently

Shaanxi high schools divide chemistry instruction into five modules: Chemistry Compulsory 1, Chemistry Compulsory 2, Principles of Chemical Reactions, Structure and Properties, and Organic Chemistry Foundation. The first two are required for all students; the latter three are electives, with science-track students choosing two. For example, Baoji High School selects Principles of Chemical Reactions and Structure and Properties. Its students have strong foundations and often master all modules through self-study or tutoring, preparing them well for university chemistry.

However, module choices vary by school based on teaching resources and student ability, leading to uneven knowledge among incoming university students. Under the new “3 + 1 + 2” exam model (2025), students can choose any two from Chemistry, Biology, Politics, and Geography. This flexibility may leave some students - especially those without prior chemistry exposure - with significant knowledge gaps.¹² Without teaching tailored to their backgrounds, university inorganic chemistry courses may face serious continuity issues.

Mismatch between Inorganic Chemistry course requirements and student learning abilities

Inorganic Chemistry is the first core course for chemistry majors, bridging high school chemistry and advanced courses like Physical Chemistry, Analytical Chemistry, and Organic Chemistry. It builds on prior knowledge and provides essential concepts for future study. Through theory and lab work, students must master key principles, understand major developments, and develop scientific thinking. This requires moving beyond memorizing isolated topics to seeing connections across chapters and forming effective learning strategies.

However, many freshmen struggle with the course content, pace, and demands of independent learning. After the intense college entrance exam, some lose motivation or become disengaged. Differences in physics and chemistry backgrounds also affect learning outcomes. Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, though a leading provincial institution, admits students with varying chemistry levels due to location and recruitment. Classroom feedback shows many lack strong reasoning and logical thinking skills, and their self-directed learning and ability to integrate concepts are underdeveloped. As a result, there is a clear gap between students’ current abilities and the course’s cognitive demands.

Strategies for effectively aligning thermodynamics in Inorganic Chemistry courses at local normal universities with high school chemistry

The “borrowing” approach embedded in the thermodynamics course, guiding conceptual understanding and application

Introducing thermodynamics into the inorganic chemistry curriculum enables students to understand key chemical phenomena - such as the nature and limits of chemical equilibrium - from a macroscopic and quantitative perspective. Since this content is fundamentally application-driven, excessive emphasis on complex derivations or abstract theoretical reasoning should be minimized to reduce cognitive load and enhance comprehension among first-year students. By adopting a “take-as-given” approach - introducing core conclusions without full derivation - essential learning outcomes are preserved while improving accessibility, thereby supporting a smooth transition from high school to university-level study without undermining future in-depth exploration.¹³ For instance, the People’s Education Press textbook (Chemical Reaction Principles) states only that “at constant pressure, the heat of reaction equals the enthalpy change”. In contrast, university-level inorganic chemistry, under the assumption of volume-only work, clearly distinguishes between constant-volume heat Q_V and constant-pressure heat Q_P, and derives their relationship using the first law of thermodynamics, Hess’s law, and the ideal gas equation. This structured progression supports vertical alignment of knowledge, allowing students to build on prior understanding while gradually engaging with more rigorous theoretical frameworks.

(1) $${\mathrm{Q}}_{\mathrm{v}}=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{U}{\mathrm{Q}}_{\mathrm{p}}=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{H}$$

(2) $$\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{U}=\mathrm{Q}+\mathrm{W}$$

(3) $$\mathrm{\Delta }{\mathrm{H}}_{\mathrm{l}}=\mathrm{\Delta }{\mathrm{H}}_2+\mathrm{\Delta }{\mathrm{H}}_3$$

(4) $$\mathrm{pV}=\mathrm{nRT}$$

(5) $$\Rightarrow {\mathrm{Q}}_{\mathrm{p}}={\mathrm{Q}}_{\mathrm{v}}+\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{nRT}$$

where ∆H₁, ∆H₂, and ∆H₃ are the reaction enthalpies of different stages, respectively; Q is the heat absorbed by the environment; W is the work done on the system by the surroundings; p, V, n, R and T correspond to the pressure, volume, amount of substance, and thermodynamic temperature in the ideal gas equation of state, respectively.

However, many students struggle with the concept of volume work. A common error is thinking that volume work can occur under constant-volume conditions or that thermodynamic laws no longer apply when non-volume work is present. These misconceptions stem from passive, rote-learning habits in high school. In fact, ∆H depends only on the difference between the system’s final and initial enthalpy, regardless of volume work. Non-volume work affects only heat exchange with the surroundings; the first law of thermodynamics still holds. Thus, the relationship between enthalpy change and non-volume work can be directly derived (Equation 6).

(6) $$\begin{array}{c}{\mathrm{Q}}_{\mathrm{P}}=({\mathrm{U}}_2+{\mathrm{pV}}_2)-({\mathrm{U}}_1+{\mathrm{pV}}_1)+{\mathrm{W}}_{\mathrm{f}}\\ ={\mathrm{H}}_2-{\mathrm{H}}_1+{\mathrm{W}}_{\mathrm{f}}\\ =\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{H}+{\mathrm{W}}_{\mathrm{f}}\end{array}$$

where U₁ and U₂ are the change in the system’s thermodynamic energy across stages; p is the pressure; V₁ and V₂ are system volume across stages; W_f is the non-volume work.

Clearly explaining the conditions under which Q_V ≈ Q_P and treating reactions with condensed phases as approximately equal avoids unnecessary complexity and simplifies calculations. When using Gibbs free energy to assess reaction spontaneity, focus on ∆G < 0 under isothermal, isobaric conditions with only volume work. For cases involving non-volume work, clarify that the Gibbs criterion still applies - the restriction to volume-only work defines a simplified model for easier understanding and calculation. This approach of reducing mathematical complexity while preserving key concepts applies across inorganic chemistry, helping students grasp difficult topics and stay engaged.

Integrate thermodynamic principles into inorganic chemistry - the “four major equilibria”, elemental properties, and reaction prediction - to help students build a clear conceptual framework

Gibbs free energy change (∆G) is the key criterion for determining reaction direction and connects all major topics in inorganic chemistry thermodynamics, including acid-base, precipitation-dissolution, coordination, and redox equilibria.¹⁴ Yet many students memorize these concepts in isolation, failing to see their connections, which limits their ability to apply knowledge effectively. In a final exam at Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, less than 10% of students fully solved a problem combining redox electrode potentials with equilibrium constant calculations. Most could compute electrode potentials but failed to link ∆G and equilibrium constant (K) correctly. Similar errors occurred in precipitation-dissolution problems. These results show that a ∆G centered framework helps unify fragmented content and improves students’ ability to solve complex problems.

Figure 1 shows how the Gibbs free energy change links the chemical reaction equilibrium constant and the electromotive force of redox electrochemical cells. It provides a direct quantitative relationship between electromotive force of a galvanic cell and the equilibrium constant. These connections are key but challenging topics in inorganic chemistry thermodynamics. In teaching, students should gain a clear understanding to apply concepts like electrode potential, equilibrium constants, and reaction spontaneity accurately. Three examples are listed below.

Figure 1
Relation table of thermodynamic formulas

(i) Calculating equilibrium constants using

The standard Gibbs free energy change () determines reaction direction and extent: the more negative , the larger the equilibrium constant K and the greater the reaction completion; the less negative or positive , the smaller K and the lower the completion. At equilibrium, = -RT lnK; at 298 K, this becomes = -5.706 lnK, allowing direct calculation of K from thermodynamic data. This method applies to ionization, precipitation-dissolution, complex formation, and redox reactions using standard data (e.g. for HAc, for BaSO₄). Although previously reported, these calculations remain valuable for teaching. The agreement between calculated and textbook values strengthens students’ understanding of chemical equilibrium and highlights thermodynamics’ role in inorganic chemistry.

(ii) Using thermodynamic calculations to explain inorganic reaction behavior and experimental results

First-year students often use qualitative reasoning due to limited theory, but adding simple thermodynamic calculations - like lattice energy or Born-Haber cycles - helps them better understand inorganic reactions and material properties. This approach strengthens key chemistry concepts, moves students beyond memorization, builds analytical thinking, and supports future learning while showing how thermodynamics provides clear, logical explanations.

For example, CrX (X = F, Cl, Br, I) is unstable despite chromium’s electron configuration (3d⁵4s¹). Losing one electron gives a stable 3d⁵ half-filled shell, so CrX should form. Yet these compounds do not exist. Consider CrCl formation from Cr and Cl₂:

(7) $$\mathrm{Cr}(\mathrm{s})+\frac{1}{2}{\mathrm{Cl}}_2(\mathrm{g})\stackrel{{\mathrm{\Delta }}_1{\mathrm{H}}_m^{\theta }}{\iff }\mathrm{CrCl}(\mathrm{s})$$

Thermodynamic data and the Born-Haber cycle give (CrCl) = 45 kJ mol^-1. The reaction Cr + Cl₂ → CrCl is entropy-decreasing (∆S < 0) and endothermic, so ∆G > 0 at all temperatures. Thus, CrCl is thermodynamically unstable and cannot form spontaneously. Further analysis follows:

(8) $$2\mathrm{CrCl}(\mathrm{s})\rightleftharpoons {\mathrm{CrCl}}_2(\mathrm{s})+\mathrm{Cr}(\mathrm{s})$$

Thermodynamic calculations show < 0 for the disproportionation reaction, confirming it is spontaneous and that CrCl is thermodynamically unstable. C and Si are in the same group, but their oxides differ greatly: CO₂ is a gas with low melting and boiling points, while SiO₂ is a hard, high-melting solid. This is due to bonding differences. C has a small atomic radius and forms strong C=O double bonds (803 kJ mol^-1), giving discrete CO₂ molecules. Si has a larger radius and cannot form stable π bonds; instead, it forms a 3D network of SiO₄ units linked by single Si-O bonds (464 kJ mol^-1). Though each Si-O bond is weaker, the network structure gives SiO₂ higher total bonding energy, explaining its high stability, hardness, and melting point. Using thermodynamics and calculations provides a clearer, more direct explanation than structural analysis alone, helping students better understand how atomic structure affects material properties.

(iii) Designing new reaction pathways for inorganic synthesis via thermodynamic coupling

Coupling a non-spontaneous reaction with a spontaneous one yields a spontaneous process (∆G < 0), enabling new substance synthesis. Methane (CH₄) is stable due to strong C-H bonds, making its conversion thermodynamically unfavorable:

(9) $$2{\mathrm{CH}}_4\rightleftharpoons {\mathrm{C}}_2{\mathrm{H}}_4+2{\mathrm{H}}_2{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{\mathrm{r}}{\mathrm{G}}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\theta }=170\mathrm{kJ}{\mathrm{mol}}^{-1}$$

(10) $$2{\mathrm{H}}_2+2{\mathrm{Cl}}_2\rightleftharpoons 4\mathrm{HCl}{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{\mathrm{r}}{\mathrm{G}}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\theta }=-381\mathrm{kJ}{\mathrm{mol}}^{-1}$$

The H₂ and Cl₂ reaction is spontaneous (∆G < 0). When coupled with the non-spontaneous conversion of methane, it enables methane to be converted to ethylene at 1700 °C.

(11) $$2{\mathrm{CH}}_4+2{\mathrm{Cl}}_2={\mathrm{C}}_2{\mathrm{H}}_4+4\mathrm{HCl}{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{\mathrm{r}}{\mathrm{G}}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\theta }=-211\mathrm{kJ}{\mathrm{mol}}^{-1}$$

Many coupling reactions demonstrate how thermodynamic design enables real chemical transformations. Using thermodynamic analysis in reaction design helps students apply knowledge to practical problems and think critically during experiments. These methods come from the author’s teaching experience. Mastering thermodynamics requires more than lectures - it needs active student participation. Teachers should provide clear guidance and ongoing supervision to support effective learning.

Hybrid teaching with knowledge graphs and AI in Inorganic Chemistry

Outcome-based education (OBE) emphasizes clear learning outcomes, student-centered learning, and personalized, inquiry-based teaching.¹⁵,¹⁶ In practice, effective classroom instruction must be combined with active extracurricular engagement. By using knowledge graphs and artificial intelligence, the course supports diverse learning paths and individualized learning.¹⁷-¹⁹ The knowledge graph is built using natural language processing to extract key entities (e.g., concepts, formulas) and relationships (e.g., derivation, application) from textbooks and research papers, then stores and visualizes them in a graph database (Figure 2). This approach improves knowledge organization and enables quantitative assessment of learning progress.

Figure 2
Inorganic chemistry knowledge map (smart tree)

Subsequently, knowledge graphs were utilized to integrate core content from textbooks, academic literature, and question banks, enabling the construction of a three-layer “data-logic-application” framework and the development of a standardized five-step teaching process: structured decomposition of knowledge points, data standardization, association rule mining, visual modeling, and dynamic optimization (Figure 3). Building on this methodology and enhanced by AI technology, a domain-specific knowledge graph for thermodynamics was developed, facilitating deep integration of fragmented teaching resources. By leveraging entity linking and relational reasoning algorithms, the system quantifies the significance of individual knowledge points and reveals their intrinsic logical connections, thereby supporting students in constructing a coherent understanding of complex concepts. Empirical teaching data demonstrate that implementation of this approach increased the average mastery rate of core knowledge points from 68.3 to 82.7%, while reduced error rates in the thermodynamics module from 37.2 to 19.5% (Figure 4).

Figure 3
Three-tier architecture and five-step teaching process

Figure 4
Thermodynamics knowledge graph

Students can view the knowledge network online. For example, the thermodynamics branch in Figure 4 links “Thermodynamic Laws”, “Gibbs Free Energy Criterion”, and “Reaction Heat Calculation”, while integrating ideological education elements and frontier knowledge such as the scientific spirit in Hess’s law and thermodynamics applications in materials synthesis. This helps students understand concept relationships and master core principles (Figure 5). The AI teaching assistant uses deep learning to answer questions and recommend resources. Based on BERT, it understands student queries and retrieves relevant cases with over 90% accuracy. It quickly combines videos, textbooks, and papers into structured learning materials. As shown in Figure 6, for any topic, the system extracts knowledge points, examples, exercises, and case studies to create complete teaching plans. Resource matching scores and student feedback are used to improve personalization.

Figure 5
Thermodynamics branch in the knowledge graph

Figure 6
AI teaching assistant interaction and question bank examples

As shown in Figure 7, the system uses knowledge graph data analysis to quickly assess student understanding across the class. This allows teachers to provide targeted tutoring for weak areas and deliver personalized resources to struggling students, improving monitoring and overall teaching effectiveness.

Figure 7
Learning process data feedback

Implementation of a “moral guidance and integrated knowledge-competence development” approach, establishing a trinity model of knowledge transmission, ability development, and value formation

To address low motivation among freshmen, the inorganic chemistry team integrates ideological education throughout teaching. In the “Fundamentals of Chemical Thermodynamics” unit, a heuristic-inquiry method is used to combine subject content with moral development. Students develop dialectical thinking through problem scenarios, learn from Nobel laureate John B. Goodenough’s scientific journey, and explore China’s contributions to battery technology - strengthening national pride and deepening understanding of ∆G = ∆H - T∆S. This approach enhances professional competence and scientific reasoning while making thermodynamics more meaningful.

Relevant experience and summary

By integrating disciplinary teaching with ideological education, the course clarifies learning goals and highlights chemistry’s role in sustainable development and real-world problem solving. Teaching combines heuristic, case-based, and discussion methods to promote independent thinking. Classroom discussions focus on societal issues and inorganic chemistry frontiers, improving analytical skills. As a result, student engagement in lectures, labs, and projects has increased significantly. Students have performed well in summer practice programs, innovation competitions, and academic contests. The model has been adopted by Xianyang Normal University, Jinzhong University, and others, receiving wide recognition and demonstrating strong exemplary and radiating effects (Figure 8).

Figure 8
Key activities and results

CONCLUSIONS

Inorganic chemistry course development should center on the “student-centered” philosophy. Thermodynamics teaching, as a key component, bridges knowledge modules by prioritizing structural chemistry while using thermodynamics as support. Practice shows that an integrated reform - content reconstruction, method innovation, and technology empowerment - effectively addresses core challenges in thermodynamics instruction at local normal universities: deep content, limited class hours, and weak coherence. By using knowledge graphs, AI tools, and integrating ideological education, student performance improved significantly: mastery of core concepts rose from 68.3 to 82.7%, error rates dropped from 37.2 to 19.5%, and gains were seen in knowledge integration, scientific thinking, and learning initiative.

• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
  This work was financially supported by the University-Level Ideological and Political Education Model Curriculum Program (Inorganic Chemistry Experiment, Inorganic Chemistry (Science Track)), the 20^th Batch of University-Level Teaching Reform Project at Baoji University of Arts and Sciences (25JGZD11), local service special project of Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education (23JC003), College student innovation and entrepreneurship project (S202310721064).

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

All data are available in the text.

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Edited by

• Associate Editor handled this article:
  Nyuara A. S. Mesquita

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  13 Feb 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  21 Aug 2025
• Accepted
  16 Dec 2025
• Published
  13 Jan 2026