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Dossier: Psychology and Climate Change • Psicol. USP 36 • 2025 • https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-6564e240026 linkcopy

Open-access Connection to nature and pro-environmental behavior among children in Jakarta: the role of experiences of nature

Ligação à natureza e comportamento pró-ambiental em crianças de Jacarta: o papel da experiência da natureza

Conexión con la naturaleza y comportamiento proambiental en niños de Yakarta: el papel de la experiencia con la naturaleza

Connexion à la nature et comportement pro-environnemental chez les enfants de Jakarta: rôle de l’expérience de la nature

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract:

This study aims to examine whether connection to nature mediates the relationship between children’s experiences of nature and their pro-environmental behavior in Jakarta. Participants were elementary school students aged 9-10 years (n=291), recruited using convenience sampling. Findings indicate that connection to nature does not mediate the effect of either direct and vicarious experiences of nature on pro-environmental behavior. The results can inform government agencies, educators, and communities in developing strategies to promote pro-environmental behavior via both direct and vicarious experiences of nature.

Keywords:
children; connection to nature; direct and vicarious experiences of nature; pro-environmental behavior

Resumo:

Esta investigação tem como objetivo analisar se a ligação à natureza medeia a influência da experiência da natureza no comportamento pró-ambiental das crianças de Jacarta. Os participantes eram alunos de 9 a 10 anos da escola primária de Jacarta (n=291). A amostra foi obtida através de técnicas de amostragem de conveniência. Os resultados da investigação indicam que a ligação à natureza não medeia a influência da experiência direta e vicariante da natureza no comportamento pró-ambiental. Os resultados desta investigação podem ser utilizados pelo governo, pelos educadores e pelas comunidades para desenvolver estratégias de promoção do comportamento pró-ambiental através das influências da experiência direta e vicariante da natureza.

Palavras-chave:
crianças; conexão com a natureza; experiência direta e vicária da natureza; comportamento pró-ambiental

Resumen:

Esta investigación analizó cómo las experiencias con la naturaleza (directas y vicarias) influyen en el comportamiento proambiental de niños de Yakarta, evaluando específicamente si la conexión con la naturaleza era el factor que mediaba en esta relación. Los participantes fueron alumnos de primaria de 9 a 10 años de Yakarta (n=291). La muestra se obtuvo mediante técnicas de muestreo de conveniencia. Los resultados no corroboraron la hipótesis de mediación, mostrando que la conexión con la naturaleza no es el mecanismo que explica dicha influencia. A pesar de que la conexión con la naturaleza no media la relación, este hallazgo es útil para que el gobierno, los educadores y las comunidades desarrollen estrategias diversas y efectivas que fomenten el comportamiento proambiental a través de la promoción de otros tipos de experiencias con la naturaleza.

Palabras clave:
Niños; Conexión con la naturaleza; Experiencia directa y vicaria con la naturaleza; Comportamiento proambiental

Résumé:

Cette étude a analysé comment les expériences (directes et indirectes) avec la nature influencent le comportement pro-environnemental des enfants de Jakarta, en évaçuant si le lien avec la nature était le facteur médiateur dans cette relation. Les participants étaient des élèves du primaire agés de 9 à 10 ans à Jakarta (n=291). L’échantillon a été obtenu à l’aide de techniques d’échantillonnage de commodité. Les résultats n’ont pas corroboré l’hypothèse de médiation, montrant que le lien avec la nature en pas le mécanisme qui explique cette influence. Bien que le lien avec la nature en soit pas un facteur médiateur dans cette relation, cette conclusion est utile pour le gouvernement, les éducateurs et les communautés afin de développer des stratégies et efficace qui encouragent un comportment pro-environnemental à travers la promotion d’autres types d’expériences avec la nature.

Mots-clés:
enfants; lien avec la nature; expérience directe et indirecte avec la nature; comportement pro-environnemental

Introduction

Environmental degradation is one of the greatest challenges facing humanity. A four-year assessment conducted by the United Nations (UN) in 2022 concluded that profit-driven, short-term market dynamics and economic growth have significantly contributed to the current environmental crisis (Hoffman, Jennings, & Poggioli, 2022). Experts acknowledge that human actions, regardless of scale, can lead to environmental problems (Li, Zhao, Ma, Shao, & Zhang, 2019; Milfont & Schultz, 2016; Steffen et al., 2015)demographic variables and psychological factors. The main purpose of this work is to review the literature (i.e., published studies Activities such as excessive plastic consumption; improper disposal of plastic waste into rivers; the release of industrial, domestic, and agricultural waste into rivers and coastal areas; deforestation; and the use of toxins or explosives for fishing are among the most harmful to the environment (Anam, 2022; DKTV, 2022; Ministry for the Environment, 2020; Rukandar, 2017).

The consequences of these human activities include an increased risk of flooding (Murty, Ramadhania, Adichandra, & Airlia, 2022; Rentschler, Salhab, & Jafino, 2022); contamination of water sources, making them unsafe for consumption (Anam, 2022; Ministry for the Environment, 2020); sanitation issues; and water shortages (Amoah & Addoah, 2021). Unfortunately, environmental issues are often regarded as less important than economic concerns in Indonesia (Nugraha, 2019). Nevertheless, environmental degradation poses a significant threat, jeopardizing both quality of life and environmental sustainability (Amoah & Addoah, 2021; Government of Canada, 2020; Pusat Krisis Kesehatan Kementerian Kesehatan, 2021). Reducing and minimizing environmental problems largely depend on behavioral changes that promote more environmentally friendly lifestyles (Nielsen, Cologna, Lange, Brick, & Stern, 2021; Tian & Liu, 2022)2019; IPCC, 2018.

Environmentally friendly behaviors aimed at improving the environment are also known as pro-environmental behavior (PEB) (Steg & Vlek, 2009). According to Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002), PEB is a conscious effort to reduce the negative impact of one’s actions on the natural environment. Examples of PEB include turning off taps when not in use, recycling plastic and organic waste, segregating waste by type, recycling used motor oil, and using environmentally friendly natural soaps (Kurisu, 2015). Additionally, Collado, Evans, & Sorrel (2017) found that some PEB can also be performed and encouraged among children.

According to Otto, Evans, Moon, & Kaiser (2019) the period of increased environmental behavior occurs between the ages of seven and 10, representing a significant stage for developing environmental habits. However, such behaviors tend to become more stable and consolidated after the age of 10. Promoting environmental habits among children is particularly important in Jakarta, where they face daily environmental risks due to severe air pollution and limited access to clean water (Arif, 2023; Jakarta Globe, 2021). Several researchers state that children are crucial in environmental preservation, as they will soon face the consequences of environmental degradation and can contribute to mitigation with behavioral changes (Collado, Staats, & Sancho, 2019; Zeiske, Venhoeven, Steg, & van der Werff, 2021).

Unfortunately, most of the literature on determinants of children’s PEB focuses on populations in developed countries. Studies conducted in China, the United States, and Canada (e.g., Amicone et al., 2018; Jia & Yu, 2021; Wichmann et al., 2022)psychological, and social resources, which have diminished over the years in the process of meeting the demands of everyday life. Psychological restoration can be provided by specific environments, in particular by natural environments. Studies report a restorative effect of nature on human beings, specifically in terms of the psychological recovery from attention fatigue and restored mental resources that were previously spent in activities that require attention. Two field studies in two Italian primary schools tested the hypothesized positive effect of recess time spent in a natural (vs. built exemplify this trend. Consequently, the promotion of PEB among children in developing countries has been neglected (Duron-Ramos, Collado, García-Vázquez, & Bello-Echeverria, 2020; Evans, Otto, & Kaiser, 2018)mainly due to the more frequent contact with nature that people from rural areas have. However, the processes that link living in a rural area and behaving in a more ecological manner have not been systematically studied. Moreover, most studies have focused on adults living in developed countries. Given the importance that the actions conducted by people in developing countries have for the future of the environment, as well as the relevance of children’s pro-environmentalism for nature conservation, we present a brief research report examining the relationship between Mexican children’s place of residence and self-reported pro-environmental behavior (PEB. Therefore, identifying effective factors, processes, and methods to foster pro-environmental behavior is relevant for both scientific and practical reasons, especially in developing countries (Collado et al., 2019; Duron-Ramos et al., 2020; Zeiske et al., 2021)little is known about how other social agents may shape youth’s environmentalism. This cross-sectional study concentrates on the role that parents and peers have in the regulation of 12- to 19-year-olds’ pro-environmental behaviors. We also consider the common response bias effect by examining the associations between parents, peers, and adolescents’ pro-environmentalism in two independent data sets. Data Set 1 (N = 330. Furthermore, Duron-Ramos et al. (2020)mainly due to the more frequent contact with nature that people from rural areas have. However, the processes that link living in a rural area and behaving in a more ecological manner have not been systematically studied. Moreover, most studies have focused on adults living in developed countries. Given the importance that the actions conducted by people in developing countries have for the future of the environment, as well as the relevance of children’s pro-environmentalism for nature conservation, we present a brief research report examining the relationship between Mexican children’s place of residence and self-reported pro-environmental behavior (PEB showed that rural children have better PEB than urban children. However, the latter are more exposed to environmental damage, such as worsening air pollution. Therefore, examining PEB among urban children can help understand how they can contribute to environmental solutions.

Forms of PEB that can be practiced and encouraged among children include simple everyday activities such as recycling old newspapers into new paper, composting organic waste and monitoring the decomposition process, and understanding the importance of waste separation and recycling (Kos, Jerman, Anžlovar, & Torkar, 2016). Recent studies on introducing PEB strategies support the hypothesis that time spent outdoors during childhood affects children’s PEB in adulthood (Evans et al., 2018; Rosa, Profice, & Collado, 2018)longitudinal analyses revealed that over a 12-year period from ages 6 to 18, individuals who grew up with mothers with more proenvironmental attitudes engaged in more proenvironmental behavior as young adults. A similar marginal association was uncovered between mothers’ proenvironmental behaviors and the proenvironmental behavior of their young adult offspring. Maternal educational attainment, but not political ideology, was also associated with more proenvironmental behavior as children matured. Moreover, childhood time spent outdoors was positively associated with increased environmentally responsible behavior in young adulthood. Interestingly, one’s own childhood proenvironmental behavior and attitude, at least as assessed at age 6, bear little on one’s eventual proenvironmental behavior as a young adult. Finally, among this set of childhood factors, maternal education and childhood time spent outdoors were independent predictors of positive changes in environmental behavior from early childhood to young adulthood.”,”container-title”:”Psychological

Researchers analyzing the association between EON and PEB, such as Soga et al. (2016) the extinction of experience, is viewed as one of the most fundamental obstacles to addressing global environmental challenges. However, the consequences for biodiversity conservation have been examined very little. Here, we conducted a questionnaire survey of elementary schoolchildren and investigated effects of the frequency of direct (participating in nature-based activities, conducted a study involving 397 children aged 9-12 in Tokyo. The results showed that frequent EON experiences among children tend to develop support for biodiversity conservation. This finding provides evidence that direct experiences with nature can translate into attitudes and behaviors that protect the environment (Soga et al., 2016; Whitburn, Linklater, & Abrahamse, 2020) the extinction of experience, is viewed as one of the most fundamental obstacles to addressing global environmental challenges. However, the consequences for biodiversity conservation have been examined very little. Here, we conducted a questionnaire survey of elementary schoolchildren and investigated effects of the frequency of direct (participating in nature-based activities. To encourage children to engage in positive nature experiences, Soga et al. (2016) the extinction of experience, is viewed as one of the most fundamental obstacles to addressing global environmental challenges. However, the consequences for biodiversity conservation have been examined very little. Here, we conducted a questionnaire survey of elementary schoolchildren and investigated effects of the frequency of direct (participating in nature-based activities suggest that strengthening affective attitudes toward nature is an effective approach. Similarly, Colléony, Prévot, Saint Jalme, & Clayton (2017) show that individuals with stronger emotional attachments to nature are more likely to participate in nature-based activities.

The emotional attachment between an individual and the natural world is also known as connection to nature (CTN). This concept reflects the emotional experiences and feelings individuals have when interacting or connecting with the natural environment (Mayer & Frantz, 2004). CTN is considered crucial for the future of environmental conservation, as individuals with little connection to nature tend to be indifferent and less likely to act against environmental damage (Hughes, Richardson, & Lumber, 2018). Furthermore, Cheng and Monroe (2012) found that children with a stronger connection to nature are more interested in participating in environmentally friendly activities aimed at protecting nature. Research conducted in Canada by Dopko, Capaldi, & Zelenski (2019) further supports that CTN explains how EON influences children’s PEB.

Rosa et al. (2018)we explore whether nature experiences lead to selfreported pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs also found that CTN mediates the relationship between EON and PEB in adulthood. Their findings suggest that individuals who develop both experiences and emotional connections with nature during childhood are more likely to engage in PEB as adults. However, the aforementioned studies relied on single items to measure EON. Therefore, future research should employ multiple items to better assess the internal consistency of the measurement and to capture different types of nature experiences (Rosa et al., 2018) we explore whether nature experiences lead to selfreported pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs.

Previous research has identified both direct and indirect (vicarious) effects of EON on PEB. For example, Soga et al. (2016) the extinction of experience, is viewed as one of the most fundamental obstacles to addressing global environmental challenges. However, the consequences for biodiversity conservation have been examined very little. Here, we conducted a questionnaire survey of elementary schoolchildren and investigated effects of the frequency of direct (participating in nature-based activities found that direct and vicarious EON influence children’s affective attitudes, which ultimately shape their PEB in Tokyo. Similarly, Yue and Chen (2023)exacerbating a pervasive negative cycle that could impact future conservation efforts. Therefore, it is essential to conduct further studies on the potential impacts of these changes on children’s willingness to engage in conservation practices. Methods: We surveyed 2,175 preadolescents (aged 9-12 reported a strong correlation between direct and vicarious EON and children’s PEB in China. However, no studies have examined the mediating role of CTN in the relationship between direct and vicarious EON on PEB in developing countries. Therefore, this study aims to further explore whether CTN mediates the influence of direct and vicarious EON on PEB among 9-10-year-old children in Jakarta.

Method

Research participants.

The study participants were children aged 9-10 years old residing in Jakarta and attending elementary school. This age group was selected because it represents a period of increased environmental behavior and a stage at which such behavior begins to stabilize and consolidate (Otto et al., 2019). According to Piaget’s theory of development, children aged 9-10 years are at the concrete operational stage, characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete events and to categorize objects into different groups (King, 2017).

Jakarta was chosen because it is one of the most densely populated cities in Indonesia and faces various environmental issues. The city is highly vulnerable to environmental risks such as water scarcity, severe air pollution, and the impacts of climate change. The conditions are further exacerbated by Jakarta being ranked as the world’s most polluted city in 2021 (Jakarta Globe, 2021; Wareza, 2021). Moreover, children represent the most vulnerable group when confronting these environmental risks (Arif, 2023).

The minimum sample size of 114 participants was determined using the G*power software (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner, & Lang, 2009).

Research design.

This study employs a quantitative approach. This approach is structured and specific, has been tested for its validity and reliability, and can be explicitly defined (Kumar, 2011).

Data collection employed a cross-sectional design, in which data were gathered only once for the measured variables (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018). Furthermore, a non-experimental design was used, meaning that participants did not receive any intervention during the study (Kumar, 2011).

Research instrument.

PEB was assessed utilizing the Children’s Responsible Environmental Behavior Scale developed by Erdogan, Ok, & Marcinkowski (2012). Higher total scores on this scale indicate greater environmental responsibility.

EON was assessed using the Experience of Nature Scale constructed by Soga et al. (2016) the extinction of experience, is viewed as one of the most fundamental obstacles to addressing global environmental challenges. However, the consequences for biodiversity conservation have been examined very little. Here, we conducted a questionnaire survey of elementary schoolchildren and investigated effects of the frequency of direct (participating in nature-based activities, comprising a total of five items. The total score is obtained by summing the two dimensions of the scale: direct and vicarious EON.

CTN was measured using the Children’s Connection to Nature Index developed by Cheng and Monroe (2012), which includes 14 items. Higher total scores indicate stronger CTN.

Research procedure.

This study was conducted over approximately six months. It began with defining the research problem and selecting the theoretical framework, followed by identifying appropriate instruments to measure the study variables. Subsequently, the author adapted the instruments from English into Indonesian using the following steps:

  1. Translating the original instruments from English into Indonesian.

  2. Conducting expert judgment to ensure cultural and linguistic appropriateness of the translated version.

  3. Revising the questionnaire items based on feedback from the expert review.

Then, the author conducted a readability test to ensure the questionnaire items were comprehensible to the target participants. The revised items, refined based on expert judgment, were presented directly to participants to assess their comprehension. Participants were asked to identify any words or sentences they found difficult to understand and to provide suggestions for improvement. The test involved 26 individuals who closely matched the participant criteria. To evaluate comprehension, four meta-questions were used: “What does this sentence mean to you?”; “Do you have any experiences related to this sentence?”; “If a sentence like this were asked of you, how would you respond?”; “Are there any sentences or words you did not understand? If so, which ones should be replaced?” (Engler & Stausberg, 2022).

The next stage was the instrument testing, conducted by administering the questionnaire to participants who met the inclusion criteria but were not involved in the readability test. Data collection was conducted in person, from June 21-24, 2023.

During this phase, several visits to elementary schools in Jakarta were carried out to distribute the questionnaires. Informed consent was first obtained from class guardians, after which both consent forms and questionnaires were provided to the students, guiding them with the questionnaire completion. Following data collection, responses were processed using SPSS Statistics version 25. Hypotheses were tested using F. Hayes’ mediation model 4 with the PROCESS feature for SPSS.

Data analysis.

The first stage of data analysis involved testing classic assumptions (normality test). Subsequently, a bivariate correlation analysis (Pearson’s product-moment) was conducted to examine the relationships among the study variables. Finally, F. Hayes’s mediation model was applied to test whether CTN mediates the influence of direct and vicarious EON on PEB. All analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 25, with the PROCESS feature used for mediation analysis (Hayes, 2018).

Results

Normality testing was conducted to determine whether the data in this study are normally distributed. The results of this test dictate the choice between parametric and non-parametric analyses. Normality was assessed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.

The results indicated a residual significance value of 0.634 (p > 0.05), suggesting no significant deviation from a normal distribution. Therefore, the data were considered normally distributed.

Subsequently, descriptive and correlation analyses were conducted to ascertain the statistical values and relationships among the study variables, as a prerequisite for the F. Hayes PROCESS Macro analysis. To execute this analysis, the independent variable (IV) must be related to the mediator, and the mediator must be related to the dependent variable (DV) (Hayes, 2018). Considering that the data were normally distributed, Pearson’s product-moment correlation was used for this analysis.

Pearson’s correlation revealed that the direct EON dimension (IV) is positively correlated with CTN (mediator) (r = 0.801, p = 0.000 [p < 0.05]), indicating a strong relationship. Similarly, the vicarious EON dimension (IV) is positively correlated with PEB (DV) (r = 0.352, p = 0.000 [p < 0.05]). However, the vicarious EON dimension is negatively correlated with CTN (r = −0.258, p = 0.000 [p < 0.05]), suggesting an inverse relationship. No significant correlation was found between the direct EON dimension and PEB (r = −0.064, p = 0.278 [p < 0.05]), nor between CTN and PEB (r = −0.062, p = 0.295 [p < 0.05]), indicating no evidence of a positive relationship in these cases.

Based on these results, mediation analysis using Hayes’ PROCESS macro could not be conducted, as the conditions required for model 4 were not met.

Conclusion

Based on the data analysis and hypothesis testing, it can be concluded that both direct and vicarious EON significantly influence CTN among children in Jakarta. However, CTN does not influence PEB in these children. Thus, there is no direct influence of direct and vicarious EON on PEB mediated by CTN in children in Jakarta.

Discussion

The findings of this study indicate that, of the five proposed hypotheses, two are supported. Hypotheses 1 and 4 were accepted, showing that direct and vicarious EON influence CTN as a mediator. Hypothesis 2 was rejected, as CTN did not influence PEB. Hypotheses 3 and 5 were also rejected because the conditions for mediation testing outlined by Hayes (2018) were not met-namely, that the IV dimensions of direct and vicarious EON must be related to the CTN mediator, and CTN must be related to PEB. Therefore, mediation testing could not be conducted.

Hypothesis 1 was supported, as the direct EON dimension positively influenced the CTN mediator, indicating that higher levels of direct EON lead to increased CTN in children. This aligns with prior research such as Soga et al. (2016) the extinction of experience, is viewed as one of the most fundamental obstacles to addressing global environmental challenges. However, the consequences for biodiversity conservation have been examined very little. Here, we conducted a questionnaire survey of elementary schoolchildren and investigated effects of the frequency of direct (participating in nature-based activities, who demonstrated that direct EON influences children’s affective attitudes toward nature. Similarly, Cudworth (2021) argued that children engaging with natural environments and green areas tend to find a greater sense of meaning and environmental concern, especially concerning their relationship with non-humans. Oh et al. (2021) further reported that spending time in nature strengthens the human-nature connection. Consistent with these findings, in this study, 200 out of 291 participants lived in urban areas but had access to nearby green facilities, such as city parks and open green spaces. This access likely increased opportunities for nature experiences, enhancing their relationship with nature. This is supported by Jucker & Von Au (2022), who found that children with easy access to open spaces demonstrate higher levels of CTN. Overall, these findings suggest that spending time in nature positively influences children’s relationship or attachment to nature.

Hypothesis 4 was supported, as the vicarious EON dimension negatively influenced the CTN mediator, indicating that higher levels of vicarious EON are associated with lower CTN in children. This differs from the findings of Soga et al. (2016) the extinction of experience, is viewed as one of the most fundamental obstacles to addressing global environmental challenges. However, the consequences for biodiversity conservation have been examined very little. Here, we conducted a questionnaire survey of elementary schoolchildren and investigated effects of the frequency of direct (participating in nature-based activities, who found that vicarious EON had a positive influence on PEB. The Digital Report 2022 states that 80% of parents reported that their children under the age of 11 have accessed audiovisual content via YouTube (Prasetyo, 2022). This suggests that children obtain vicarious EON by means of electronic devices such as smartphones, tablets, or laptops (Arendt & Matthes, 2016). However, the high number of children accessing audiovisual content does not necessarily translate into interest in environmental action. For instance, content created by the Pandawara Group on TikTok to encourage environmental protection has not attracted significant engagement from children (Nuri, 2023). According to Radargroup.id, the content most favored by children, especially boys, is gaming content related to Free Fire, supported by the abundance of such content created by influencers on platforms such as YouTube and other social media (Novi, 2023). Generally, Indonesian children access social media for informational and school-related purposes, entertainment, purchasing goods or services, and obtaining related information (Annur, 2021). These findings align with research indicating that children who spend substantial time indoors playing games or using social media tend to have a weaker connection with nature (Jucker & Von Au, 2022). Furthermore, Jucker & Von Au (2022) suggest that a lack of parental involvement in fostering children’s engagement with nature is a key factor contributing to this disconnection. Thus, despite easy access to vicarious EON via social media, the nature of available content and insufficient parental support limits children’s opportunity to develop a CTN.

Hypothesis 2 was rejected because the CTN mediator did not affect PEB as the DV. This finding contrasts with previous studies indicating that CTN influences PEB (Frantz & Mayer, 2014; Mackay & Schmitt, 2019; Roczen, Kaiser, Bogner, & Wilson, 2014). Furthermore, the lack of connection between the mediator and DV resulted in the inability to conduct the F. Hayes mediation analysis (Hayes, 2018).

In other words, direct and vicarious EON do not influence PEB mediated by CTN among children in Jakarta. Several factors may explain why CTN does not affect PEB. One possible factor is gender: research suggests that girls tend to have a less favorable image of certain wildlife, which consequently reduces their interest in exploring natural environments and feeling connected to nature (Soga, Yamanoi, Tsuchiya, Koyanagi, & Kanai, 2018; Zhang, Goodale, & Chen, 2014) children are becoming disconnected from the natural world. This progressive separation of humans from nature, “extinction of experience,” is viewed both as a major public health issue and as one of the fundamental obstacles to halting global biodiversity loss. Thus, it has become increasingly important to understand what drives and limits children’s direct experiences of nature. We administered a largescale questionnaire to 5801 children from 45 elementary schools in Tochigi, central Japan. Children were asked to provide information on frequency of nature experiences, extent of nature relatedness, time pressure, inclination towards screen-based media, and their family members’ attitudes towards nature-based activities (family members’ nature orientation. In this study, the number of male and female participants was similar, suggesting that the lack of influence may be partly due to a proportion of female participants experiencing aversion toward certain wildlife. The second factor may be a weak environmental education, which could contribute to the lack of impact of CTN on PEB. As reported by the news outlet The Conversation, environmental education can serve as a gateway for children to develop life values related to the environment (The Conversation, 2023a). However, another report from The Conversation has examined the implementation of environmental curriculum in Indonesia. Specifically, children’s learning achievements regarding environmental threats and climate awareness remain limited, as instructional materials mainly target high school students. There is still a need for improved project-based learning and greater involvement of other parties in environmental education at the school level (The Conversation, 2023b).

The third factor is the role of adults. As reported on the setda.gompukab.id website, parents are key in instilling care and love for the environment in their children, as well as communicating the importance of preserving and protecting the environment (Syah, 2023). This aligns with several studies indicating that parents are primary influencers of children’s PEB (Grønhøj & Thøgersen, 2017; Jia & Yu, 2021). However, many parents tend to perceive nature as dangerous or dirty, which hinders children’s CTN (BBC, 2013). Moreover, environmental issues are not widely discussed in Indonesia, and many adults remain indifferent to them (Detiknews, 2014). The fourth factor is culture. Milfont and Schultz (2016) argue that individual’s ways of relating to and interacting with nature differ across cultures. Supporting this view, Rosa et al. (2018)we explore whether nature experiences lead to selfreported pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs note that different ethnic groups may have distinct goals in interacting with nature, such as socialization or fitness. Hence, the outcomes of nature experiences can vary depending on cultural context.

In Indonesia, people’s primary motivation to visit natural places, such as city parks, is social interaction with family or friends (Dwiputra et al., 2017). The fifth factor is the living environment, which can also influence individual’s environmental behavior. Children living in rural areas spend more time in nature compared to those in urban areas, leading to greater interest in environmental conservation (Collado & Evans, 2019; Duron-Ramos et al., 2020; Evans et al., 2018; Otto et al., 2019). In this study, all participants resided in urban areas .It can be concluded that several factors may explain why CTN did not influence PEB: gender, suboptimal environmental education, weak parental involvement in fostering environmental bonds and behavior, cultural factors, and residential location.

Hypotheses 3 and 5 were rejected because CTN does not mediate the influence of IV dimensions of direct and vicarious EON on PEB among children in Jakarta. This is because CTN and DV are not related to each other, as previously discussed.

Implications.

Environmental issues and their associated risks remain a pressing concern in Indonesian society, especially Jakarta. However, the responsibility to minimize these risks with behavioral changes does not solely rely on adults; children are also crucial. This makes environmental problems both significant and worthy of ongoing study, particularly involving child participants.

The implications of this research can provide valuable guidance for governments, communities, and individuals to explore effective strategies via collaboration and the use of media, such as books or social platforms, to promote environmentally friendly behavior. Additionally, the findings may inform curriculum design aimed at supporting and fostering environmental behavior in schools, particularly among children, by means of effective environmental education. This study can also aid schools in developing educational programs based on direct and vicarious EON, thereby expanding children’s engagement with nature and encouraging PEB. Ultimately, these implications contribute to supporting environmental sustainability.

Limitations.

This study presents limitations:

  1. Limited exploration of parental roles and involvement. Without this perspective, the author could not identify children’s behavioral factors toward the environment, such as habits or social influences.

  2. Uneven data collection across several regions.

  3. Use of a cross-sectional design, which prevents establishing causality between variables and does not capture changes over time.

  4. Lack of comparison between different populations, such as rural and urban.

  5. Use of the PEB variable in a general sense, which limits identification of specific types of PEB suitable for children aged 9-10 in Jakarta.

  6. Narrow age range of participants.

  7. Limited exploration of participant characteristics, restricting identification of other influencing factors related to the variables studied.

Based on the research findings and limitations, the author provides the following methodological and practical recommendations:

Methodological Recommendations:

  1. Future research should involve the role of parents or caregivers without restricting the privacy and freedom of children in answering questions.

  2. Conduct longitudinal studies to analyze individual changes over time, minimizing potential biases and enabling the tracking of variable changes.

  3. Broaden the study population to obtain more diverse results, such as comparing urban and rural children.

  4. Investigate different types of vicarious EON and their impact on nature connection, including the long-term effects on environmentally friendly behavior.

  5. Specify the types of PEB suitable for Indonesian children, particularly in Jakarta.

  6. Include additional participant characteristics, such as usage of electronic devices, social media habits, or after-school activities, to enrich the analysis.

  7. Expand the participant age range to better understand the dynamics of their relationship with nature.

Practical Recommendations:

This study found that direct and vicarious EON directly influence PEB. These findings suggest that direct and vicarious EON should serve as a reference for governmental bodies responsible for education, natural resource management, environmental communities, and activists in developing strategies to promote environmentally friendly behavior. Practical activities could include organizing children’s market days during car-free events to sell reusable secondhand items, facilitating school collaboration with nature-focused communities for activies such as coral reef cultivation, introducing virtual reality experiences related to flora and fauna, and producing documentaries or television programs aimed at shaping children’s environmental awareness and encourage sustainable behavior.

Data availability statement

Datasets related to this article will be available upon request to the corresponding author.

References

Edited by

  • Editors in charge:
    Gustavo Martineli Massola and Mário Henrique da Mata Martins

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    19 Jan 2026
  • Date of issue
    2025

History

  • Received
    05 May 2024
  • Accepted
    11 Sept 2025
Creative Common - by 4.0
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
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Instituto de Psicologia da Universidade de São Paulo Av. Prof. Mello Moraes, 1721 - Bloco A, sala 202, Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira, 05508-900 São Paulo SP - Brazil - São Paulo - SP - Brazil
E-mail: revpsico@usp.br
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