Social Media and Executive Functions in Adolescents: A Literature ReviewAbstract
This review analyzed the scientific literature on social media use, with an emphasis on TikTok, and its relationship with Executive Functions in adolescents. It aimed to identify the main indicators used to characterize the use of these platforms and to determine which cognitive processes may present associated deficits. Empirical studies published between 2013 and 2023, in English or Portuguese, that explicitly addressed the relationship between social media or TikTok use and Executive Functions in adolescence (10-19 years) were included. Searches were conducted in the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases. The sample consisted of 12 articles, 10 of which focused on the general use of social media and 2 focused specifically on TikTok. The results varied according to the executive component and platform investigated, revealing distinct mechanisms of interaction between online behaviors and the cognitive development of adolescents. The findings highlight gaps in the literature and underscore the need for more in-depth empirical research with adolescents.
Keywords:
TikTok; Working Memory; Inhibitory Control; Cognitive Flexibility
Resumo
Esta revisão analisou a literatura científica sobre uso de mídias sociais, com ênfase no TikTok, e sua relação com Funções Executivas em adolescentes, buscando identificar os principais indicadores utilizados para caracterizar o uso dessas plataformas e verificar quais processos cognitivos podem apresentar déficits associados. Foram incluídos estudos empíricos publicados entre 2013 e 2023, em inglês ou português, que abordassem de forma explícita a relação entre uso de mídias sociais ou TikTok e Funções Executivas na adolescência (10-19 anos). As buscas foram realizadas nas bases Web of Science, PubMed e Scopus. A amostra foi composta por 12 artigos, sendo 10 voltados ao uso geral de mídias sociais e 2 focados no TikTok. Os resultados variaram conforme componente executivo e plataforma investigada, revelando mecanismos distintos de interação entre comportamentos online e desenvolvimento cognitivo dos adolescentes. Os achados evidenciam lacunas na literatura e apontam a necessidade de investigações empíricas mais aprofundadas com adolescentes.
Palavras-chave:
TikTok; Memória de Trabalho; Controle Inibitório; Flexibilidade Cognitiva
Resumen
Esta revisión analizó la literatura científica sobre uso de redes sociales, con énfasis en TikTok, y su relación con Funciones Ejecutivas en adolescentes. Buscó identificar los principales indicadores utilizados para caracterizar uso de estas plataformas y determinar qué procesos cognitivos pueden presentar déficits asociados. Se incluyeron estudios empíricos publicados entre 2013 y 2023, en inglés o portugués, que abordaron explícitamente la relación entre uso de redes sociales o TikTok y Funciones Ejecutivas en adolescencia (10-19 años). Se realizaron búsquedas en bases de datos Web of Science, PubMed y Scopus. La muestra consistió en 12 artículos, 10 centrados en uso general de redes sociales y 2 centrados en TikTok. Los resultados variaron según componente ejecutivo y plataforma investigada, revelando distintos mecanismos de interacción entre comportamientos en línea y el desarrollo cognitivo de adolescentes. Los hallazgos resaltan lagunas en la literatura y apuntan a necesidad de investigaciones empíricas más profundas con adolescentes.
Palabras clave:
TikTok; Memoria de trabajo; Control inhibitorio; Flexibilidad cognitiva
Introduction
Social media comprises a set of platforms that allow users to produce, share, and interact with online content. Among these platforms are collaborative projects, such as Wikipedia; blogs; virtual gaming communities; content-sharing communities such as YouTube and TikTok; and social networking sites such as Facebook and Instagram (Kuss & Griffiths, 2017). In 2023, according to a DataReportal survey, more than four billion people had active social media accounts, with particular prominence of content communities and social networking sites, especially TikTok, YouTube, Facebook, and Instagram (Kemp, 2022).
However, although these platforms have expanded the ways people communicate and interact, their use has also been associated with difficulties in emotion regulation, attentional deficits, learning problems, and the manifestation of addiction-like symptoms, such as persistence, mood modification, and withdrawal, as well as interpersonal and intrapersonal problems resulting from dysfunctional use (Boer et al., 2021; Bozzolla et al., 2022; Pilatti et al., 2021).
This impact occurs because the use of social media, especially when combined with other activities, can affect concentration and problem-solving skills, leading to more frequent use and impacting cognitive and psychosocial functioning (Broilo, Tisser, & Lisboa, 2022). In addition, social media resources activate areas of the brain associated with the reward system, intensifying the emotional content of stimuli related to these platforms, which reduces cognitive regulation capacity and performance in everyday activities (Maza et al., 2023).
This scenario becomes even more striking in adolescence, the age group ranging from 10 and 19 years old (World Health Organization [WHO], 2023). At this stage, the socioemotional network, responsible for processing and interpreting emotional stimuli, becomes more active, making adolescents more reactive to distracting information and more sensitive to immediate rewards (Casey, 2015; Larsen & Luna, 2018). At the same time, higher-order cognitive processes, such as Executive Functions (EFs), are still developing (Zelazo & Carlson, 2012).
EFs refer to three interdependent cognitive processes that regulate human cognition and behavior in an integrated manner: working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Because these processes are still developing during adolescence, this age group tends to have greater difficulty controlling impulses and regulating behavior. In this context, intensive use of social media can represent a risk factor, interfering with the maturation of these skills in the face of prolonged exposure to digital stimuli (Broilo, Tisser & Lisboa, 2022).
Therefore, analyzing the relationship between social media use and EF performance among adolescents is essential, especially considering the high frequency of such use at this stage of development (Kuss & Griffiths, 2017). Investigating this association can contribute to the understanding of cognitive development in adolescence and the impact of digital technologies, in light of evidence pointing to behavioral deficits in inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and decision-making in adult users of online platforms (Cudo & Zabielska-Mendyk, 2019; Ioannidis et al., 2019).
In this context, the present study aimed to analyze the scientific literature addressing the relationship between social media use, with an emphasis on TikTok, and Executive Functions in adolescents. It also sought to identify the main indicators used to characterize the use of these platforms and to examine which cognitive processes may present associated deficits in this population.
The emphasis on TikTok is justified by its recent and growing popularity, especially among younger generations (Kemp, 2022). Just four years after its launch, the short video platform reached the milestone of one billion monthly active users (Wang, 2021). In Brazil, one of the countries with the highest number of social media users, TikTok is the main platform used by preteens aged 10 to 14 (Centro Regional de Estudos para o Desenvolvimento da Sociedade da Informação [CETIC], 2023).
In addition, TikTok has highly efficient mechanisms for distributing attractive content, requiring little cognitive effort and reduced sustained attention over long periods. These characteristics can contribute to prolonged use and favor the development of dysregulated behavior patterns (Qin et al., 2021; Zhang & Liu, 2021; Zhao, 2021). For these reasons, TikTok was chosen as the main focus of the present investigation.
The results of this study are expected to provide a critical synthesis of recent literature, highlighting existing gaps and indicating the need for more in-depth empirical research with adolescents. This review also has the potential to support preventive practices, educational initiatives, and interdisciplinary reflections aimed at promoting mental health and the healthy development of young people in contexts mediated by digital technologies.
Method
To meet the proposed objectives, an integrative literature review was conducted. This type of review provides an understanding of current knowledge on a topic through a systematic approach (Souza et al., 2010). In this sense, the research was conducted by two reviewers, following the steps of the PRISMA flowchart (Page et al., 2021). To reduce errors and biases, the reviewers performed the steps independently, and only after completing each screening were the selections compared. Discrepancies in the analysis were resolved during group discussions.
Electronic searches were conducted from June to August 2023 in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, using the following Booleand search string: (“Executive function” OR “Working memory” OR “Cognitive flexibility” OR “Inhibitory control”) AND (“Social media” OR “Short video” OR TikTok). The “year of publication” filter was applied with a 10-year time interval (2013-2023).
After the searches, the references were downloaded from the databases and subsequently loaded into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for analysis and identification of duplicates. Duplicate articles were removed from the screening using Microsoft Excel’s built-in tools.
Study selection followed a two-step process. First, titles and abstracts were screened to identify potentially relevant studies. Next, the preselected articles underwent full-text assessment, according to the eligibility criteria defined for this integrative review.
The inclusion criteria were: (a) empirical studies with an applied focus; (b) published in English or Portuguese; (c) containing one or more of the established descriptors or their synonyms in the title; and (d) with a freely accessible abstract. In addition, (e) the studies had to explicitly address the relationship between social media use and/or TikTok use and Executive Functions; and (f) analyzing a sample that included adolescents aged 10 to 19 years, according to the definition of the World Health Organization. Studies in which the 10-19 age range represented only part of the sample were included, provided that the results covered this age group.
The following were excluded: (a) integrative review studies, (b) theoretical studies, (c) publications without free full-text access, and (d) investigations whose focus was not aligned with the objective of this review, such as studies centered on specific pathological conditions, the use of social media for health-care promotion, associations with emotional processes or other cognitive domains, and neurobiological studies without behavioral or Executive Function performance measures. We also excluded (e) studies whose samples included participants with neurological disorders and (f) studies with a mean age lower than 10 years or higher than 19 years, or those that did not present results related to adolescents within this age range.
Data extracted from the full-text articles included in the study were organized using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet with the following fields: authors; publication date; country; sample size; study design; overall objective; mean age of the sample; characterization of social media/TikTok use; social media/TikTok use assessment instrument; Executive Function domain assessed; Executive Function assessment instruments; and a brief description of the results. For the analysis, the studies were grouped into two categories according to their objectives: the relationship between social media use and Executive Functions, and the relationship between TikTok use and Executive Functions. The consistency of the findings was evaluated based on the number of studies reporting similar results.
Results and Discussions
General information about the review
A total of 9,233 articles were identified (Web of Science, n= 2,735; Pubmed, n= 1,161; Scopus, n= 5,337), of which 1,146 were duplicates. Thus, 8,087 records remained for screening. In the first stage, 37 studies met the eligibility criteria based on title and abstract screening. After the full-text assessment, 25 articles were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. Finally, 12 studies were included and comprised the final sample. Figure 1 describes the selection stages of this review.
All studies were available in full text in English. After selection, an increase in publications addressing social media and Executive Functions was observed, as most of the included studies were published between 2020 and 2023 (n=8), while the remaining studies were published between 2013 and 2019.
Regarding the sample age in the articles, there was a prevalence of young adults (n=6). The other studies focused on adolescents (n=4), children (n=1), and one study included participants aged 18 to 60 years. The methodological analysis of the articles indicated a predominance of cross-sectional observational studies. Table 1 presents the authors of the publications, the years, objectives, samples, and the instruments used to assess Executive Functions and social media/TikTok use behavior.
Characterization of social media and TikTok use behavior
Social media usage behavior was characterized through platform addiction (Gou et al., 2023; He et al., 2022; Xie et al., 2021; He et al., 2020; Lian et al. 2018; Gao et al., 2019; Pedrero-Pérez et al, 2018); time spent on social media (Taylor & Cingel, 2021; Hains et al., 2020; Pedrero-Pérez et al, 2018; Alloway et al., 2013) and frequency of platform use (Hains et al., 2020; Alloway et al., 2013).
In studies, social media addiction was operationalized based on the presence and/or frequency of addictive symptoms, such as mood modification, i.e., using social media to achieve subjective pleasurable sensations, salience or excessive desire to use social media platforms, difficulty limiting use, and interpersonal and intrapersonal harm caused by uncontrolled use. The presence and/or frequency of addictive symptoms related to the platforms were measured using standardized self-report scales (Gou et al., 2023; He et al., 2022; Xie et al., 2021; He et al., 2020; Lian et al. 2018; Gao et al., 2019; Pedrero-Pérez et al, 2018). Furthermore, studies that used indicators of time and frequency of social media use verified participants’ behavior in questionnaires through direct questions (Alloway et al., 2013; Taylor & Cingel, 2021; Hains et al., 2020), with the exception of Pedrero-Pérez et al (2018). This latter study applied the MULTICAGE-TIC, a 20-item questionnaire with dichotomous (Yes/No) responses about the estimated time spent by the participant and people close to them on the internet, in games, on cell phones, instant messaging, and social media. The MULTICAGE-TIC also includes items related to difficulties in abstaining from online platform use and difficulties in voluntarily interrupting such behavior.
The indicators used to characterize TikTok usage behavior were TikTok addiction symptoms (Sha & Dong, 2021), daily usage time, and trust in the TikTok recommendation algorithm (Xu et al., 2022). To assess users’ level of addiction to TikTok, Sha and Dong (2021) adapted the Smartphone Addiction Scale, Short Version (SAS-SV; Kwon et al., 2013), a ten-item scale originally designed to assess smartphone addiction. The items include statements related to symptoms of dependence, withdrawal, and excessive time spent on social media.
In the study by Xu et al. (2022), participants indicated their daily TikTok usage time on a six-point scale (ranging from 1 = less than 15 minutes to 6 = more than 3 hours). Trust in the recommendation algorithm was assessed using a binary scale, where zero indicated autonomous content searching on TikTok and 1 indicated watching videos recommended by the platform.
Social Media Usage Behavior and Executive Functions
This category presents the results of analyses of general social media use behavior, except for TikTok, and its relationship with Executive Functions. As shown in Table 1, most studies investigating this relationship evaluate only one Executive Function process, with the exception of the studies by Pedrero-Pérez et al. (2018) and Lian et al. (2018), which evaluate Executive Functions in an integrated manner. In this sense, Inhibitory Control is the most frequently investigated cognitive process, appearing in five of the ten studies that make up this category.
The studies analyzed suggest that the relationship between social media use and performance in Executive Functions (EFs) varies according to the cognitive process investigated and the user profile. Inhibitory control was the most studied component, but the findings are heterogeneous. Although most studies did not identify significant differences in behavioral performance on classic inhibition tasks between intensive and non-intensive users (Gou et al., 2023; Xie et al., 2021; Gao et al., 2019), complementary data suggest that users with problematic behavior demonstrate greater reactivity to social media-related stimuli, which may reflect an attentional vulnerability linked to the salience of digital stimuli (Xie et al., 2021; Gao et al., 2019).
For example, Xie et al. (2021) identified significant differences in response time and attentional resource allocation between excessive and non-excessive microblog users in a modified Stroop task. In this task, participants were instructed to fix their gaze on a central point and, when stimuli appeared, indicate the color of the block by pressing the corresponding key as quickly and accurately as possible. The results showed that excessive users had slower response times (M = 997.62 ms) and longer average eye fixation duration (M = 317.7 ms) compared to non-excessive users (M = 837.11 ms and M = 215.44 ms, respectively).
Similarly, Gao et al. (2019) investigated the neural processing of excessive social media users, comparing them to non-excessive users during a Go-NoGo task that involved platform-related stimuli and neutral control images. The assessment considered both accuracy scores and reaction times, as well as measures of brain electrical activity associated with stimulus processing during the task. The results showed that, although there was no significant difference in behavioral performance between the groups (F(1,41) = 0.30; p = 0.573), excessive users exhibited an attentional bias toward social media stimuli, evidenced by a greater amplitude of the N1 component, a neural marker of early attention to visual stimuli for platform-related images (M = -7.02 ± 3.13 μV) compared to neutral images (M = -6.24 ± 2.84 μV). This difference in neural response was significantly different from that observed in non-excessive users (F(1,41) = 7.70; p = 0.008).
These results indicate that, although inhibitory control does not manifest itself as an overall deficit in standardized tasks, there may be a selective attentional bias in digital contexts, which is especially relevant in adolescence, a period characterized by hightened sensitivity to reward and incomplete development of Efs (Casey, 2015; Larsen & Luna, 2018). However, the available evidence does not yet allow us to determine whether this vulnerability is a cause or consequence of excessive use, reinforcing the need for longitudinal studies.
Regarding Working Memory, the results are equally divergent. Hains et al. (2020) found that the frequency of Facebook use was not a significant predictor of adolescents’ performance on a word maintenance and recall task (F(1,109) = 0,57; p > 0,05). In contrast, the study by Alloway et al. (2013), which analyzed the interaction between the time spent using two social media platforms (i.e., Facebook and YouTube) and adolescents’ cognitive processes, identified a significant difference in working memory performance between older Facebook users (more than one year of use) and newer users (less than one year) (t(61) = 2.19; p = 0.03). Specifically, adolescents with more than one year of platform use obtained better results on the reverse digit sequence repetition task (M = 123.08; SD = 1.76), compared to those with less time of use (M = 112.77; SD = 6.41). In the case of YouTube, however, no significant differences were observed between the groups in their performance on working memory tasks (t (60); p > 0.05).
These findings reinforce the importance of considering the specific characteristics of each platform, since different formats, motivations, and modes of interaction can distinctly affect users’ executive functioning (Kuss & Griffiths, 2017). In this sense, it is plausible to assume that specific characteristics of Facebook, such as active interaction and information retrieval, may, in some contexts, favor memory processes (Alhabash et al., 2024). However, platforms such as YouTube, which are generally used more passively and simultaneously with other activities, tend not to promote the same cognitive engagement and may even lead to attentional overload (Khan, 2017).
In addition to the specific characteristics of the platforms, individual variables such as age and sociocultural context may also influence the observed effects, especially since some executive skills tend to specialize in late adolescence (Zelazo & Carlson, 2012). Although cognitive abilities may develop based on generational context and the recurrent use of technologies, the literature consistently highlights the implications of social media on executive functions and socioemotional skills (Broilo, Tisser & Lisboa, 2022). However, the studies analyzed were mostly cross-sectional, which prevents us from determining whether these effects are transient or long-lasting.
Cognitive flexibility has been less investigated, with inconclusive results (He et al., 2022). In a study with Chinese female university students, the cognitive process evaluated showed no significant correlations with the measure of social media dependence (r = -0.03; p > 0.05). Considering the interdependence among executive processes (Diamond, 2013), it is possible that one cognitive process may be more or less activated during the control and regulation of certain behaviors. However, when evaluated jointly, deficits in Executive Functions appear to be greater among problematic social media users (Pedrero-Pérez et al, 2018; Lian et al, 2018). Future research could evaluate the three cognitive processes of Executive Functions simultaneously, allowing for a deeper exploration of this interdependence.
Finally, it is important to highlight a methodological limitation common to the reviewed studies: the predominance of self-report measures to assess usage behavior, which may compromise data accuracy (Montag, Yang & Elhai, 2021). Future research should prioritize mixed methods, combining self-reports with objective usage records, in addition to designing longitudinal studies that can clarify the direction of the observed associations.
TikTok Usage Behavior and Executive Functions
Only two studies identified directly addressed the relationship between TikTok use and Executive Functions (Sha & Dong, 2021; Xu et al., 2022), both focusing exclusively on Working Memory, the component responsible for the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information (Baddeley & Hitch, 1994). The results indicated a negative association between problematic TikTok use-whether measured by dependence or daily usage time-and performance on tasks that require the maintenance and manipulation of information.
Sha and Dong (2021) found that higher levels of TikTok dependence correlated with poorer performance in reverse digit repetition (r = -0,31; p < 0,01), while Xu et al. (2022) observed that both trust in the recommendation algorithm (β = -0,17; p < 0,001) and daily usage time (β = -0,19; p < 0,001) were negative predictors of performance on working memory tasks among 12- to 13-year-old adolescents.
Considering the cognitive plasticity of adolescence and the greater sensitivity to rewards typical of this phase (Casey, 2015; Larsen & Luna, 2018), the hypothesis that excessive use of TikTok may impact the development of Executive Functions is plausible. Preliminary findings suggest that platform-specific characteristics, such as the fast pace of videos and automated recommendation logic, may compromise sustained attention and, consequently, the ability to process and retain information (Qin et al., 2022; Zhao, 2021).
Although the studies reviewed mainly point to the negative impact of TikTok use on working memory, it is also possible to consider that preexisting deficits in this executive component may make adolescents more prone to a pattern of continuous and dysregulated use of the platform. Individuals with lower information maintenance and manipulation abilities may be more susceptible to rapid and rewarding stimuli, which would reinforce the repeated search for short and immediately consumable content. This assumption reinforces the need for longitudinal studies that investigate the direction and reciprocity of this relationship.
In short, the scarcity of studies and the narrow focus on working memory limit the possibility of generalization. There is insufficient evidence to determine whether these deficits are specific to TikTok or reflect trends among social media users in general. Future research should broaden the focus to other components of Executive Functions, considering contextual variables such as usage patterns and individual characteristics, using longitudinal methods and multimodal assessments.
Final Considerations
This review aimed to analyze the scientific literature on the relationship between social media use behavior, with an emphasis on TikTok, and the Executive Functions of adolescents. The results suggest that problematic use of these platforms is associated with greater sensitivity to digital stimuli, particularly in contexts involving attentional control and reward processes. However, the available behavioral data are not sufficiently consistent to establish clear patterns of deficits across the different components of Executive Functions.
Regarding TikTok, the few existing studies point to possible impairments in working memory. However, the scarcity of research exploring other executive processes, such as inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, as well as the absence of longitudinal studies, limit a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon.
This review also contributes by characterizing the different patterns of behavior associated with social media use and by highlighting the need to employ more objective and diverse indicators to assess this behavior and its interactions with adolescents’ executive functioning.
Given these gaps, it is essential to expand research to address the complexity of executive functions, employing diverse methodological designs and including objective measures of digital behavior. Advancing this field is essential for informing educational actions and preventive strategies, considering the risks and opportunities that social media pose for the cognitive and socioemotional development of adolescents in an increasingly digital world.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT:
The research data are not available.
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Source. Survey Data