Self-Determination Theory and Associations in the Experience of Parenting: a Systematic ReviewABSTRACT
This systematic review analyzed the relationship between Self-Determination Theory and the experience of parenting children from birth to 12 years of age. The PRISMA recommendations were followed, with searches in PsycINFO, PubMed, EBSCO, Web of Science, BVS/LILACS, and SciELO databases. A total of 812 studies were found, 10 of which met the eligibility criteria for analysis. The results indicated that the variables were divided into autonomous and controlled motivation or human psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Satisfaction of psychological needs was positively related to parental identity, support for autonomy, pleasure, joy, and life satisfaction experiences. This study can contribute to the creation of strategies directed toward engagement, quality, and parental involvement, enabling a better understanding of these benefits for children.
KEYWORDS:
Self-Determination Theory; parenting; systematic review
RESUMO
Esta revisão sistemática analisou a relação da Teoria da Autodeterminação e a experiência da parentalidade em crianças de 0 a 12 anos. As recomendações PRISMA foram seguidas, com buscas nas bases PsycINFO, PubMed, EBSCO, Web of Science, BVS/LILACS e SciELO. Encontraram-se 812 estudos, dos quais 10 atenderam aos critérios de elegibilidade para análise. Os resultados apontaram que as variáveis se dividiram em motivação autônoma e controlada ou necessidades psicológicas humanas de autonomia, competência e relacionamento. A satisfação das necessidades psicológicas foi positivamente relacionada com identidade parental, apoio a autonomia, prazer, alegria e experiências de satisfação com a vida. Este estudo pode contribuir para a criação de estratégias voltadas para engajamento, qualidade e envolvimento parental, possibilitando melhor compreensão desses benefícios para os filhos.
PALAVRAS-CHAVE:
Teoria da Autodeterminação; parentalidade; revisão sistemática
The term “parenting” has been discussed in the literature for approximately two decades; however, inconsistencies still appear among authors regarding its definition (Paraventi, 2018). Parenting styles (Baumrind, 1966; 1967; Maccoby & Martin, 1983) and parenting practices (Darling & Steimberg, 1993) are different conceptual perspectives that have influenced its definition to this point. Parenting is understood as the action of parents/caregivers, collaborative or not, exercising their roles in carrying out activities with their children, providing means for their development (Cruz, 2005). This parental care needs to promote autonomy and socialization (Maccoby, 2000) and primarily ensure safety and survival with the resources available (Hoghughi, 2004; Silva & Vieira, 2018). Parenting includes an integrative model of activities (a set of essential actions), functional areas (crucial aspects for children’s functioning), and prerequisites (a set of parents’ particularities for the activities carried out). Among the prerequisites is the motivation concerning parents’ aspirations and responsibilities in the parental relationship (Hoghughi, 2004). Parental motivation has been emphasized as crucial for developing skills and internal resources in parents in their relationships with their children within the context of family intervention programs. (Allen et al., 2019). Studies have demonstrated the relationship between parenting and Self-Determination Theory (SDT), as this motivation theory is articulated with three basic human psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Allen et al., 2019; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2017).
Self-Determination Theory presents six mini-theories within its organismic-dialectical macro integration, which include Basic Psychological Needs (BPN) and the regulatory types of Motivation: controlled and autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Therefore, individuals who satisfy their basic psychological needs are more self-determined, consistent with autonomous motivation in their actions. In contrast, those whose needs are frustrated would have their actions guided by external regulatory types, i.e., controlled motivation (Allen et al., 2019). When basic psychological needs are satisfied, they express themselves in autonomy with feelings consistent with one’s choices and values; in relatedness with greater bonding and involvement; and in competence with a sense of efficacy and confidence in one’s abilities (Vansteenkiste et al., 2010). Achieving these satisfactions increases parents’ autonomous motivation, promoting more effective parenting (Allen et al., 2019) and well-being (Joussemet et al., 2014).
One study indicated a significant level of intergenerational agreement between responses to the human psychological needs of the parents and those of their adolescent children (Costa et al., 2019). In the same way, another study with only mothers and children found intergenerational similarity in the satisfaction of needs in this dyad, as well as mutual support and autonomy among younger and older siblings (Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2015).
The growing involvement of parents allows their own basic psychological needs to be better met, improving the adjustment between parents and children (La Guardia & Patrick, 2008; Leijten et al., 2017). Conversely, variables such as parental stress, lack of support from the spouse, little time spent together, and lack of recognition can cause frustration of the basic psychological needs (Bouchard et al., 2007; Sevigny & Loutzenhiser, 2010).
Considering that parents are the ones who are primarily responsible for meeting their offspring’s needs, SDT studies on parenting have focused on investigating the influence of these variables on children (Joussemet et al., 2008). Due to the strongly associated transactional processes in this relationship, where both are agents that affect each other, understanding the satisfaction of parents’ needs is essential (Costa et al., 2019; Sameroff, 2009). However, studies regarding the role of parents’ human psychological needs as antecedents influencing parenting are still limited (Costa et al., 2019; Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2015). Therefore, this systematic review aimed to analyze studies that sought to understand SDT in parents of children experiencing parenting.
Method
Procedures
The review protocol followed the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA; Page et al., 2021), consisting of a checklist with 27 items and a four-stage flowchart (identification, selection, eligibility, and inclusion). This study was registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF) with the access link: https://osf.io/wbyv4/.
Research question identification
The research question was formulated using the PICo strategy: P (Participants) = Fathers and mothers of children; I (Interest) = Parents’ self-determination; and Co (Context) = Experience of parenting. Thus, the research question was structured as follow: Which studies investigate the relationships of SDT in parents experiencing parenting?
Search strategy
Studies were selected through paired and independent searches conducted in December 2022 and January 2023 in the PsycINFO, PubMed, EBSCO, Web of Science, BVS/LILACS, and SciELO databases, which index studies in health, psychology, psychiatry, and scientific multidisciplinarity. Searches were limited to titles, abstracts, and keywords of articles using descriptors: “self-determination theory” AND (“parenting” OR “parental involvement” OR “parental child relations” OR “parental characteristics”) AND (“parents” OR “father” OR “fathers” OR “mother” OR “mothers”). The Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) system and the Virtual Library of Psychology (BVS-Psi) were used to select descriptors.
Selection criteria
Relevant studies were identified based on the following inclusion criteria: 1) studies investigating SDT and its impact on the experience of parenting; 2) studies published as a peer-reviewed journal article with both caregivers (father and mother) of children aged 0 to 12 years; 3) comparative studies, experimental designs, literature reviews, and quantitative studies without time limitation. There were no restrictions on the year of publication, countries of origin of the studies, languages, or publication status of the articles (published or in press) to include as many studies as possible. Articles that were not peer-reviewed, without the full text available, represented specific or special contexts (e.g., parents of children with any disorder), or were outside the theme and sample were excluded.
Article selection
This stage was carried out independently by two researchers. If there was disagreement, a third, more experienced researcher was called upon to clarify the issue. The researchers, in pairs, analyzed all studies through title, abstract, and keywords to select them for the eligibility study. The selected articles were read in full to be included or not in the analysis corpus. The Kappa Coefficient (Cohen, 1960) was also used to evaluate the inclusion of articles in the eligibility study, a method that, according to Carpentier et al. (2017), is considered adequate for evaluating free responses and agreement estimates. The result indicated an 89% agreement between the researchers regarding the inclusion of articles for eligibility, which is considered “excellent agreement” according to Landis and Koch (1977).
Risk of bias assessment
The risk-of-bias assessment was conducted separately for each study type. The Risk of Bias Utilized for Surveys Tool (ROBUST), developed by Nudelman and Otto (2020) with dichotomous responses, was used to assess the eight correlational studies. For the one quasi-experimental study, the Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies was used, and for the two experimental studies, the Checklist for Randomized Controlled Trials with “Yes,” “No,” “Unclear,” or “Not applicable” responses was used, with both checklists recommended by the Joanna Briggs Institute (Tufanaru et al., 2020).
Results
The number of articles included in this study is shown in the flowchart. The selection of the analysis corpus is displayed at each stage (Figure 1). Table 1 presents the main characteristics of the studies included in the analysis corpus.
In the risk-of-bias assessment of the correlational studies evaluated by ROBUST, the mean total score was 5.12. Data collection in an uncontrolled environment was the risk of bias found in eight articles. Another risk of bias detected was the sample size related to the research design; in three studies, this data was not reported.
In the two experimental control studies, a low risk of bias was highlighted, evaluated by the Checklist for Randomized Controlled Trials, with “yes” in the critical assessment. In one study, only the items on group treatment allocation concealment and the participants not being blinded to the treatment assignment were observed as potential risks. A quasi-experimental study was also evaluated through the Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies, where only the item on the adequate description and analysis of different groups was highlighted as a risk of bias.
Regarding the sample size of the studies, they varied considerably, ranging from 32 to 492 participants, aged between 26 and 67 years. However, something the articles had in common was the lack of proportion between mother and father participants, as seven of the 10 selected studies had a sample with more mothers than fathers, two had a sample with more fathers than mothers, and only one study was conducted with the same number of mothers and fathers.
Considering the location, the research was conducted on four continents, excluding Africa, South America, and Antarctica. It should be noted that 40% of the studies were concentrated in the USA. An increase in publications was observed in the previous six years, with 80% of the selected studies. The first publication was by Katz et al. (2011), which investigated parents’ motivation in their children’s homework.
The measurement instruments were divided into autonomous and controlled motivation or basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Katz et al. (2011) and Hamilton et al. (2017) used the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) model by Ryan and Connell (1989) as a basis for scale construction and adaptation, respectively.
The Parents’ Motivation for Help in Homework scale, constructed by Katz et al. (2011), was the most used, with Cronbach’s Alpha of .90 for autonomous/intrinsic motivation and .87 for controlled/extrinsic motivation. These coefficients were consolidated in Moè et al. (2018) with .82 and in Nyanamba et al. (2022) with .86. One of the instruments used to evaluate basic psychological needs was the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (BPNSNF) constructed by Chen et al. (2015) and adapted for parents’ basic psychological needs in parent-child interaction by Schrooyen et al. (2021).
Among the instruments, some specific contexts were addressed to evaluate the relationship with the child: parents’ motivation to teach homework (Katz et al., 2011), encouragement of musical learning (Liu, 2010), and parent-child interaction (Brenning et al., 2019). Few instruments were identified for investigating SDT in parents in specific contexts. Other areas of participation, such as physical, mental care, and socio-emotional development of the child, had no instrument for evaluation identified.
In Table 2, the results of the correlational studies are synthesized, highlighting the variables involved in SDT and other relationships identified. Three studies (Katz et al., 2011; Moè et al., 2018; Nyanamba et al., 2022) assessed autonomous and controlled motivation in the area of parent-child interaction with homework, having a cross-sectional design and interesting results. Parents’ autonomous motivation for involvement in school homework was associated with positive emotions, less stress, more empathy, and higher quality of involvement (Katz et al., 2011; Nyanamba et al., 2022).
Support for perceived autonomy, engagement, self-efficacy, and the child’s own autonomous motivation were positively associated with their parents’ autonomous motivation (Moè et al., 2018). Furthermore, parents who were self-determined tended to get more involved because they found the interaction pleasant, enjoyable, and valuable, and they perceived themselves as more competent (Katz et al., 2011; Moè et al., 2018; Nyanamba et al., 2022).
The quasi-experimental 2nd study by Moè et al. (2018) showed that parents who received training based on SDT sustained their children’s autonomous motivation and positive emotions in homework. This study confirmed that parents’ motivation influences self-efficacy and involvement in homework by providing support and care in a safe environment.
In the parent-child interaction, both parties benefit; parents, in turn, start to obtain more adaptive aspects and positive affects (Moè et al., 2018). A study in the Chinese population (Liu et al., 2015) indicated that autonomously motivated parents encouraged their children to learn music more, influencing their achievements. It was also observed that this involvement was a variable that mediated the link between parents’ motivation and performance in learning.
Another study (Hamilton et al., 2017) investigated the relationships between motivation and parents’ intentions, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control in using sunscreen for their children. Autonomous motivation had a significant direct effect on behavior, i.e., understanding the need to use sunscreen on their children as something aligned with their values was a predictor of doing this.
It should be noted that autonomous and controlled motivation were positively correlated with each other, indicating that parents can exhibit both motivations for their actions. Therefore, they may act because the situation aligns with their values and because they want to achieve external results. However, the studies showed more significant results when autonomous motivation was higher than controlled, even when they coexisted (Katz et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2015; Moè et al., 2018; Nyanamba et al., 2022).
Parents’ motivation was also explored through the constructs of basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, i.e., parents whose needs were satisfied tended to act self-determined, being intrinsically motivated. The frustration of these needs negatively correlated with daily psychological availability, support for autonomy, negative parental experiences, daily stress, psychological control, and well-being (Schrooyen et al., 2021; Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2019). Satisfaction of basic psychological needs is positively correlated with parental identity, support for autonomy, pleasure, joy, and life satisfaction. Furthermore, it has been identified as a mediating variable in mental health, including anxiety and depression. Among competence, relatedness, and autonomy, the latter was the most consistent predictor (Schrooyen et al., 2021).
Parents who showed coherence with their choices and values, i.e., greater autonomy, promoted more positive experiences in their parental relationships. This allowed decision-making for their children’s benefit, considering their perspective and using a welcoming language, i.e., fostering autonomy (Schrooyen et al., 2021; Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2019). The relationship between the satisfaction of needs and support for children’s autonomy was mediated by parents’ psychological availability. Therefore, as their basic psychological needs were satisfied, they showed greater daily psychological availability, being more present emotionally and cognitively, indicating that the autonomy support offered by parents went through their ability to direct their psychological resources to their children. In this way, they experienced less stress in the parental relationship, according to parents’ daily reports, with similar relationships in all dyads investigated: father-child, father-daughter, mother-son, mother-daughter (Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2019).
Schrooyen et al. (2021) and Nyanamba et al. (2022) presented studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results indicated that more self-determined parents had more pleasant experiences and less parental burnout during this period. Regarding academic concerns, parents showed more controlled motivation, which may indicate the influence of the pandemic period.
In two experimental studies, the Parent Check-In program was used as an intervention based on SDT. The studies indicated that the intervention effects on parenting were more considerable in support of autonomy. Children’s hostility in the intervention group was reduced compared to the control group (Allen et al., 2019; Grolnick et al., 2021). The intervention proved effective with a large effect size in predictable consequences, clear and consistent expectations, use of rules, promotion of structure, and monitoring. The parents began to exhibit behaviors of support for autonomy, validation, and increasing exchange of opinions with their children (Allen et al., 2019; Grolnick et al., 2021). Regarding children’s symptoms, the indication of significant temporal effects for aggression and conduct problems and marginally significant effects for depression and anxiety, each decreasing over time for both groups, should be emphasized. However, a finding in these studies was the sociodemographic variable of parents’ education presenting effects in the intervention as a moderating variable, indicating that parents with lower education obtained a greater decrease in child symptomatology and increased parental structure (Allen et al., 2019; Grolnick et al., 2021). The Parent Check-In program presented the adaptability of goals determined by the parents themselves as a differential in its proposal. This proposal enabled the needs of different sociodemographic contexts to be addressed in order to promote engagement in the program, starting from their own experiences of feeling coerced or controlled. Although adaptability was indicated as a possible justification for this moderating effect of parents’ low education, it was not possible to evidence this finding (Grolnick et al., 2021).
Discussion
This review aimed to analyze the existing literature investigating Self-Determination Theory (SDT) in fathers and mothers experiencing parenting and the associations with other variables. The studies observed that SDT was explored through types of motivation or basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and was associated with beneficial variables for parents and children in various parenting contexts.
Although SDT is being deepened as a conceptual perspective of parenting, it is appropriate to align these results with Hoghughi’s (2004) model of the three domains: prerequisites, parental activities, and functional areas of parenting. In the analysis of the selected studies, variables were found that matched those highlighted in the parents’ prerequisites, such as motivation, competence, time, understanding of children’s needs; in parental activities, including the support for children’s autonomy, teaching homework, encouragement in musical learning, taking care of the child’s skin, psychological availability, and parental identity; and in children’s functional areas, such as engagement, self-efficacy, motivation, and children’s mental health (Allen et al., 2019; Gleditsch & Pedersen, 2017; Grolnick et al., 2021; Hamilton et al., 2017; Hoghughi, 2004; Katz et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2015; Moè et al., 2018; Nyanamba et al., 2022; Schrooyen et al., 2021; Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2019). For Hoghughi (2004), adequate parenting must contain a set of specifications (prerequisites) necessary for its exercise. The present review discusses results consistent with this theory, with parents’ motivation (one of the prerequisites) being a central factor in the findings, promoting various results consistent with adequate parenting.
An interesting result was the high positive correlation between parents’ autonomous and controlled motivation presented in the first study, detected in this review, and confirmed in subsequent studies (Katz et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2015; Moè et al., 2018; Nyanamba et al., 2022). According to SDT, parents’ autonomous motivation would probably be exhibited when their basic psychological needs had been met, while parents whose basic psychological needs had not been met would exhibit controlled motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2017).
The Achievement Goal Theory discusses that there are multiple goals sought by individuals, and in this pursuit, there may be a combination of autonomous and controlled motivation (Harackiewicz et al., 2002). However, SDT does not have an objective explanation for this issue. Although this gap has already been highlighted by Katz et al. (2011), no study aiming to clarify and analyze the justifications for the concomitance of motivations for parents’ actions was identified. Furthermore, it is important to note that the satisfaction or frustration of needs is not permanent, i.e., daily fluctuations may occur due to different factors not fully delineated in the literature (Mabbe et al., 2018). In Van der Kaap-Deeder et al. (2019), parents’ psychological availability was a mediating variable for this satisfaction. However, it was not possible to identify the real sources of these fluctuations, whether the experiences were with children, partners, or work.
The scaffold, i.e., the temporary support offered by the adult to help the child exhibit their potential, was also associated with parents’ autonomous motivation (Mermelshtine, 2017). The scaffold has been more used in research on children’s cognitive and academic development; more recent studies have investigated its relationship in social development (Joussemet & Grolnick, 2022). The findings indicate that more self-determined parents are perceived by their children as scaffolds (support for autonomy) and promote autonomous motivation, engagement, and self-efficacy in academic activities (Moè et al., 2018). Investigating the scaffold provided by parents, in addition to being a relevant complement, can also mediate children’s socio-emotional adjustment, self-regulation, and involvement in non-academic environments.
Parental identity can intervene in the relationships between parents and children; however, it has been little studied in this context, in which SDT plays a fundamental role. In a study conducted with middle-aged parents, covering ages 36, 42, and 50, it was observed that those who became parents at an older age demonstrated a stronger understanding of their commitments aligned with their role (Fadjukoff et al., 2016). In the context of parental identity, the specific social role requires an understanding of their performance built on beliefs about what it means to be a mother and father. Parents’ autonomous motivation is linked to their values and beliefs about their social role in parenting and plays an active role in building a more experienced parental identity. Above all, parents perceiving themselves as competent in their function, supported, and well-related is essential for this involvement (Fadjukoff et al., 2016).
Consistent with Parental Identity Theory, Eagly and Karau’s (2002) Social Role Theory considers that individuals develop specific or general roles in society. Therefore, culture plays an active role in these constructions through what is learned and absorbed by the social environment (Ramos & Félix, 2019).
The review by Joussemet and Grolnick (2022) emphasized the need to investigate parenting outcomes with caution, considering cultural differences. The valuable indications of this review need to be analyzed considering each context to promote appropriate and consistent instructions to parents, seeking what is universal without disregarding the specificities of each culture (Mesman et al., 2018).
Laporte et al. (2021) pointed out that intervention or parental counseling programs based on family needs satisfaction could boost engagement in child-rearing. This review considered results from two experimental studies and one quasi-experimental study based on SDT, addressing and meeting the main needs of parents and working through support for autonomy, competence, and relatedness for the exercise of parenting (Allen et al., 2019; Grolnick et al., 2021; Moè et al., 2018).
The Parent Check-In program presented significant results, as did the interventions conducted by Moè et al. (2018), corresponding with Laporte et al. (2021). Parents who received the intervention sustained their children’s motivation for school learning and reduced child symptomatology, such as aggression and conduct problems, with significant temporal effects and marginally significant effects for depression and anxiety. The Parent Check-In program was analyzed based on parents’ psychoeducation with children with internal problems (social withdrawal, anxiety, depression, or somatic complaints) and external problems (aggressive and delinquent behaviors). According to data released by the World Health Organization in 2021, in the last decade alone, depression among children aged 6 to 12 years has jumped from 4.5% to 8.0% (World Health Organization, 2022). A study conducted in São Paulo showed that children aged 6 to 11 from Primary Health Units presented 30.7% internal symptomatology and 18.3% external symptomatology (Fatori et al., 2018). Given the increase in child symptomatology, if parental programs could have an impact, reducing these symptoms, they would promote more mental health and contributions to healthy child development from parenting. However, despite the interventions proving promising, caution and more empirical studies are needed to identify whether these results would replicate in other cultures and samples.
The three studies with interventions were conducted with parents of children aged 8 to 13 years, containing predominantly mothers in the sample, making it impossible to compare both parents and not identifying the feasibility of interventions in children of other ages (Allen et al., 2019; Grolnick et al., 2021; Moè et al., 2018). It is emphasized that further investigations still need to be made to understand if the intervention model would also promote similar results regarding involvement and perception of self-efficacy in other tasks with more homogeneous samples and other age groups of children.
In recent years, paternal involvement has been considered a fundamental source of family well-being and positive child development (Diniz et al., 2021). However, studies on parental involvement focus almost exclusively on the mother-child dyad since the mother is still seen as the primary caregiver and the father as less involved in interactions with children (Cabrera et al., 2018). In view of this, although most parenting theories aim to be applicable to both mothers and fathers, they have not been used uniformly (Cabrera et al., 2018), having few samples with the same number of father and mother participants. Studies that include both parents are more recent; however, they are still not the norm (Cabrera et al., 2018). This review study also identified this issue from the selected studies, where it was found that out of 10 articles, the majority (70%) had a sample with more mothers, and only one had an equal number of fathers and mothers. This finding can influence the low quality of comparative data, impacting the non-conformity of results for both caregivers.
As a limitation of this study, only samples with parents of children from the general public were included, not allowing for a comparison of parenting with children who had any disorder. Another limiting factor was samples that analyzed only one dyad, mother-child or father-child, not allowing a general or comparative contemplation of the results. The samples included only parents of children from the general public, not allowing a comparison of SDT in parenting parents of children with any psychological, neurological, or specific physical condition. Furthermore, no articles were found from South America, Africa, or Antarctica, making it impossible to compare samples from different cultures.
To broaden the understanding of the topic addressed in this study, it would be important to include the impact of moderating variables such as marital satisfaction, child temperament, parental identity, and parents’ personality. Additionally, it is necessary to identify motivational antecedents such as beliefs and personal values regarding the parental role, perception of self-efficacy, and the consequent outcomes in children that have not yet been identified as a result of parents’ motivation, such as socio-emotional adjustment, respect, and obedience to proposed structures.
As a proposal for future research, studies implementing these programs in other countries could serve as interventions to reduce harm to children’s mental health. Furthermore, it is necessary to investigate parents’ motivation in other areas beyond school, sunscreen use, and their interactions with the children. It is emphasized that no studies on SDT in parents were found in Brazil. Given the contribution of this theory within parenting, investigations into parents’ motivation based on SDT could provide benefits for the parent-child interaction in the Brazilian population. In summary, this study sought to contribute to parental guidance and the construction of programs based on SDT that assist and instruct parents in the experience of parenting. This could create strategies to reduce harm in child development.
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Research data is available on request from the corresponding author.
