Sustainability and Efficiency: Comparative Analysis of Vegetable-Based and Synthetic Cutting Fluids in SAE 1045 Steel TurningAbstract
The use of mineral oil-based fluids in machining processes can lead to social and environmental problems. Therefore, the objective of this study is to perform a comparative technical-economic analysis between biodegradable emulsions based on babassu oil, castor oil and a commercial synthetic fluid during cylindrical turning of SAE 1045 steel. The formulations' impact on tool wear and durability at varying cutting speeds (90, 70 and 50 m/min) and on the surface roughness of the workpiece was analyzed. Economically, the costs per production volume were compared, using data from the machining tests. The tests demonstrated that the babassu oil-based emulsion provided the longest tool life, reaching 65.31 minutes. The synthetic fluid provided the best surface roughness results. In the economic analysis, the synthetic fluid was advantageous at a speed of 90 m/min, and below this value the castor oil-based emulsion stood out.
Keywords:
Biodegradable fluid; turning; machinability; financial analysis
1. Introduction
Machining is an industrial activity that contributes around 5% of the GDP of developed countries. However, this is a manufacturing process that presents some challenges, the main one being the high friction and heat generation during during machining operations, which develops high temperatures that compromise both the workpiece and the tools used1-5. Higher temperatures in the cutting zone promote the formation of Built-up Cutting Edge (BUCE) at the tool tip. BUCE formation leads to unfavorable changes in the rake angle, fluctuation in cutting forces, vibration, accelerated tool wear and poor surface finish of the workpiece5-7.
As a solution to reduce the problems mentioned above, cutting fluids were introduced into machining processes, mainly due to their lubrication, cooling and chip removal capabilities8,9. Thus, since the 20th century, cutting fluids have been widely used and developed for machining processes and have currently become mature in relation to their types and lubrication performance10. Due to this reason, the global cutting fluids market reached a value of approximately US$ 10.9 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow annually by 4.1%, reaching a market value of US$ 16.3 billion by 203311,12. In addition, recent statistics show that the processes of preparation, storage and post-treatment of cutting fluid represent around 10 to 17% of the total manufacturing cost10,13. As a way of comparison, cutting tools represent only 4% of the process cost14.
Among various formulation options, conventional cutting fluids (based on mineral oil) are widely used to minimize the problems of decreased workpiece fatigue strength15, increased cutting tool wear rate2 and reduced machined surface quality16,17 that are caused during the machining process. These fluids are the most widely used because they are cheap and have a long service life. Thus, almost 85% of the total cutting fluids used in the industry are mineral oil extracted from petroleum, of which around two-thirds or more are discarded14,18,19.
However, conventional cutting fluids and other auxiliary agents have a high potential for polluting soil, air, water, agricultural products and food, in addition to posing a serious risk to workers' health5,6,20-24. For this reason, in recent years, mineral oils have been losing ground in machining25. Due to such disadvantages presented by mineral oils, sustainable cutting fluids have become an important trend in the market, where one of the most prominent alternatives is the use of vegetable oil in cutting fluid formulations8,11,26-30.
Over the years, concerns about sustainable machining have increased in industries, contributing to the implementation of synthetic cutting fluids. However, these cutting fluids are expensive when compared to conventional ones. In addition to synthetic fluids, studies based on the use of vegetable oils, synthetic esters and ionic liquids have gained momentum. More specifically, vegetable oil-based cutting fluids are considered ecological, renewable, biodegradable and low-toxic products, proving to have excellent performance as sustainable substitutes for mineral oil. Therefore, vegetable oils are increasingly being used as an alternative to petroleum-based cutting fluids in machining operations due to the growing interest in implementing environmentally friendly machining. However, these fluids still have high manufacturing costs and, in most cases, require some biodegradable additives to maintain their chemical stability and properties1,3,10,31-35.
Several investigations have been carried out recently to develop new cutting fluids based on existing vegetable oils as possible replacements for mineral-based lubricants during machining operations35. However, most of the currently available studies on sustainable machining modeling have limited economic aspects, addressing only the environmental aspects of vegetable oils28. Thus, in the literature, one can find several studies such as Perera and Wegala36, Jaelani et al.37, Sen et al.38, Kazeem et al.39, Santos et al.21 and Katna et al.26, which deal with analyzes based on biodegradable cutting fluids. However, none of the works develops a technical-economic analysis of the industrial applicability of such formulations. Therefore, in order to fill this gap, this study aims to carry out a technical and economic evaluation of vegetable versus synthetic cutting fluids in the turning of SAE 1045 steel.
2. Experimental
2.1. Selection of the emulsions studied
The study analyzed three emulsions: babassu oil, castor oil, and synthetic commercial fluid. The emulsions were chosen through preliminary tests considering fundamental physicochemical properties for a cutting fluid, such as viscosity and wettability. Viscosity is the most important property of lubricating oils, since in the performance of such substances as fluids, there is a strong relationship with the wettability and heat extraction capacity8,40. Information regarding the physicochemical properties of the emulsions studied is presented in Table 1, considering the variation of the standard deviation (SD).
For economic comparison purposes, each of these formulations has the same percentage of oil in its composition, as illustrated in Table 2. Since it has a small amount of vegetable oil and emulsifying agents in its composition, its cost is also reduced, making this characteristic an economic attraction. The surfactant used to produce the emulsions was Tween 80 (Dinâmica, Brazil), also known as Polysorbate 80. This is a non-ionic surfactant composed of polyethoxylated sorbitan and oleic acid.
2.2. Materials, parameters and experimental procedures
This study aims to analyze the behavior of fluids at three different cutting speeds during the turning process, keeping the feed and depth of cut constant, as determined by ISO 368541 for single-point tool life tests. These parameters were dimensioned using ISO 368541, which has tables of standardized cutting conditions based on the tool's radius of curvature. For the machining tests, Sandvik triangular indexable inserts code TNMG 16 04 04 -QM H13A without coating and the tool holder MTJNL-2020K-16M1 manufactured by Sandvik (Sweden) were used. The fixed parameters established were a feed (f) of 0.1 mm/rev and a depth of cut (ap) of 1.0 mm. Furthermore, using simulations on the tool manufacturer's website and the ISO 368541 standard, it was possible to determine the following cutting speeds: Vc1 = 50 m/min, Vc2 = 70 m/min and Vc3 = 90 m/min.
The operation used for analysis was external cylindrical turning operation using a conventional lathe, performed at the three selected cutting speeds, varying only the lubrication/cooling condition (castor oil emulsion, babassu oil, synthetic oil and dry oil) for each of them, totaling 12 different cutting conditions. In order to have reproducibility and statistical representativeness of the results, each test was performed twice. In addition, a flowchart for the experimental procedures was developed, shown in Figure 1.
2.2.1. Machined material
For the development of this study, round bars of SAE 1045 steel with a diameter of 50.8 mm and a length of 6 meters were used. These bars were cut into pieces of 200 mm in length using the tilting band saw model FM 3700 HM manufactured by Franho (Brazil). Before each machining, the oxide layer was removed from the surface of the part.
2.2.2. Production of fluids and preparation and decontamination of the lathe's coolant reservoir
A Q261 magnetic stirrer with heating, some biscuits, vegetable and synthetic oils and distilled water were used to produce the cutting fluids. The preparation of the emulsions followed the steps shown in Figure 2. Simultaneously with the production of the fluids, the lubrication/cooling reservoir of the conventional lathe that was used to machine the test specimens was cleaned, avoiding any contaminating agent in the reservoir.
2.2.3. Preliminary check of the integrity of the cutting tool
In the preliminary evaluation, the integrity of the cutting tool was verified by an initial visualization of the cutting edges of each insert under the Stemi 2000-C stereo microscope (Figure 3a). The justification for this procedure is due to the need to verify the existence of micro-chips on the cutting edge, which can interfere with the results.
Machining, data acquisition and analysis equipment. a) Stemi 2000-C stereo microscope, b) Conventional lathe model MS 205, c) Fixing and positioning method of lubrication system for machining test, and d) S-Series surface roughness meter.
2.2.4. Machining of test specimens
A conventional lathe, model MS 205, manufactured by Nardini (Brazil), shown in Figure 3b, was used to perform the machining. In this step, the test specimens were cut until the cutting tool edge reached a flank wear (VB) of 0.3 mm (end-of-tool-life criterion). The external cylindrical turning operation was performed with 100 mm long passes.
Due to the variation in the diameter of the machined bar, a variation of no more than 10% in the expected value for the cutting speed was stipulated as acceptable. In addition, the clamping between the tips was carried out by means of a counter-point to avoid vibrations that affect the surface finish of the part and drastically reduce the life of the cutting tool. Figure 3c shows the fixation method and positioning of the lubrication system for the test. The composition of the cutting fluid was controlled by daily inspection with a refractometer.
2.2.5. Quantitative evaluation of flank wear progression
After each pass in the turning operation, the flank wear (VB) of the edge of the insert used in the machining was measured, and this procedure was repeated until the VB reached a value of 0.3 mm. For this evaluation, the Stemi 2000-C stereo microscope was used again in conjunction with the ZEN BLUE software in its version 2.5, which allows measurements to be taken from theoretical scales calibrated on the device itself.
2.2.6. Roughness measurement
For the roughness study, the Ra (mean arithmetic deviation of roughness) was defined as the evaluation parameter, which was measured at the beginning of the tool's life, with the purpose of analyzing the influence of each fluid on the surface finish of the part. Three measurements were taken in each area of the machined parts (beginning, middle and end of the sample), in order to obtain representativeness for the analyses performed. In addition, the roughness profile evaluated was raised to assess the behavior of the surface finish throughout the cut. The equipment used for this measurement was the S-Series surface roughness meter, developed by Taylor Hobson (England), illustrated in Figure 3d.
2.2.7. Cost-effectiveness evaluation of cutting fluids
For this analysis, it was considered that the only technical parameter observed would be the feed path (machining length) until the flank wear of the cutting tool (VB) reached 0.3 mm. Therefore, an initial analysis was performed regarding the cost of consumption of cutting edges and energy in the lathe's fluid pumping system, as well as the costs of production and disposal of emulsions. The Cost-effectiveness evaluation was based on the survey of costs by production rate, thus, an assessment of the cost by production volume was performed, comparing the point at which certain cutting conditions are more financially viable than others.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Tool life analysis
The first aspect studied was the tool life based on the average flank wear (VB) in the different scenarios studied. Thus, Figure 4 shows the behavior of the cutting fluids during machining for different cutting speeds.
Tool life curves. a) Tool life curves for a cutting speed of 90 m/min, b) Tool life curves for a cutting speed of 70 m/min, and c) Tool life curves for a cutting speed of 50 m/min.
By verifying the tool life curves presented in Figure 4a (tool life curves for Vc = 90 m/min), the best performance in terms of wear was obtained by the synthetic commercial fluid, followed by fluids based on castor oil and babassu. Since this condition presents greater heat generation during the cutting process, this result can be explained by the cooling capacity of each fluid, thus, the chemically synthesized fluid achieved better results by presenting wetting additives in its composition. In addition, the presence of a Built-up Cutting Edge (BUCE) was identified, a situation where the workpiece material tends to adhere to the cutting tool at the tool-chip interface due to low cutting speeds and low temperatures during cutting42,43. The heat generated directly influenced the appearance of this phenomenon, since it was non-existent in the dry test. To aid understanding of this analysis, Figure 5 shows the average flank wear (VB) at the end of the life of the cutting tool edges for Vc = 90 m/min.
Average flank wear (VB) at the end of the life of the cutting tool edges for Vc = 90 m/min.
Figure 4b shows that the castor oil-based fluid provided less tool wear and, consequently, a longer machining time before reaching the end-of-life guidelines. The babassu oil-based emulsion also generated an overwhelming result. In this sense, both biodegradable fluids are better for the cutting tool compared to the synthetic fluid and dry cutting operations, taking into account a Vc of 70 m/min. In this condition, BUCE was mainly present when using the babassu oil-based and synthetic fluid. During the wear data collection process, a tool used together with a castor oil-based emulsion showed its presence several times, causing some chips to be torn off the cutting edge. This appearance did not occur in dry cutting operations. These phenomena can be observed in Figure 6, which shows the average flank wear (VB) at the end of the life of the cutting tool edges for Vc = 70 m/min.
Average flank wear (VB) at the end of the life of the cutting tool edges for Vc = 70 m/min.
In general terms, it can be seen in Figure 4c (tool life curves for Vc = 50 m/min) that biodegradable fluids still present better results in tool life than in the other cutting conditions evaluated, evidencing that their main characteristic is the high lubricating power for machining processes, induced by the high viscosity index present in vegetable oils18. However, micro-chipping was observed on the tool edges, with the most aggravating conditions being detected when using biodegradable emulsions. In the dry machining sample, aggregated material was also found on the exit surface. To facilitate the understanding of such facts, Figure 7 illustrates the average flank wear (VB) at the end of the life of the cutting tool edges for Vc = 50 m/min.
Average flank wear (VB) at the end of the life of the cutting tool edges for Vc = 50 m/min.
It is noticeable that there are two distinct behaviors in the tool life curves (Figure 4a, 4b and 4c). Thus, in the dry condition, a rapid progression of wear is identified until reaching stabilization, a small stability zone and again a rapid increase in wear. However, when evaluating the life curves of the tests with cutting fluids, a rapid progression is observed until stabilization, then a stability zone that is maintained practically until the end of the tool life.
The positive results regarding vegetable oil-based formulations can be explained by the kinematic viscosity and density properties that are highly comparable to those of chemically synthesized fluids, to provide optimal lubrication without neglecting cooling properties18. In a broader context, it is possible to assess that in conditions that require greater cooling power, the ideal fluid is the synthetic one, presenting a small advantage over vegetable formulations. However, by reducing the heat generated, biodegradable fluids show better performance in the tool's life. Among the biodegradable fluids, it is possible to note that the castor oil-based emulsion played a better role in controlling tool wear, providing the lowest wear rate at lower speeds. Finally, dry machining does not present satisfactory results in relation to tool life, however, it is a possibility that generates the lowest fixed cost for the process.
3.2. Surface finish analysis
Another important assessment for machinability is related to the surface finish of the generated part. In this sense, Table 3 represents the data obtained from the measurements of the roughness generated on the surface of the machined parts. It is also worth mentioning that the measurements were performed by means of measurements on different parts of the part. In addition, the values calculated for the confidence interval (with 95% confidence) of the population mean of the random variable “Average roughness of the parts” acquired from each condition of the machining tests are also presented.
Confidence intervals for the random variable Average surface roughness of the parts for each machining test condition.
It can be seen from Table 3 that at a cutting speed of 90 m/min all conditions analyzed presented similar results; however, the lowest roughness is achieved by machining with the babassu oil-based emulsion. On the other hand, when the cutting speed is reduced to 70 m/min, the surface quality generated by the vegetable oil emulsions worsens, presenting higher values than the dry condition and with the synthetic oil-based emulsion. This fact is aggravated when evaluating the roughness at a cutting speed of 50 m/min.
This negative finding regarding biodegradable emulsions occurred due to the existence of the built-up cutting edge during turning, since in addition to containing material aggregated in the tool, some particles of this material also dispersed throughout the workpiece. However, the values obtained using babassu oil-based fluid were closer to those found in the dry condition. One of the main factors that are highlighted for surface roughness is the occurrence of BUCE. In the steady-state zone, BUCE accumulates and breaks continuously, carrying the fractured particles to the chip surface and the workpiece surface. Thus, the higher the BUCE, the rougher the surface produced42.
In addition, Figure 8 shows the roughness profile measured in one of the surface finishing tests. All other tests presented profiles with identical behavior. From Figure 8, a slight increase in the average roughness (Ra) can be seen, evolving from 1.93 µm to 2.09 µm, indicating progressive tool wear throughout the cut. Initially, the topographic profile presents more pronounced peaks and a greater concentration of irregularities. As the machining progresses, the profile becomes more symmetrical and regular, with a tendency towards negative asymmetry and fewer irregularities, suggesting a smoothing of the surface due to the loss of sharpness of the cutting edge. Such behaviors indicate stability in the process, but with gradual signs of degradation of the surface finishing quality.
3.3. Cost-effectiveness evaluation of the studied fluids
The first economic point evaluated was the cost of production and disposal of each emulsion. Therefore, a survey of the costs for the manufacture and final disposal of each emulsion was carried out. It is important to emphasize that no cost for dry cutting operations was considered for the analysis in question. Table 4 presents the results obtained.
From this analysis, it can be seen that the castor oil formulation has a lower cost, mainly due to the value of the raw material. In addition, the emulsion that uses babassu oil has a lower cost when compared to the synthetic one, which has the disadvantage of needing to be discarded.
Another economically fundamental point is the evaluation of the costs related to the machining process. For each cutting condition, the values spent on inserts and the fluid pumping system were considered, since the other costs are the same for all the configurations analyzed. Since tool wear is different for each speed, an analysis was carried out considering the costs in each cutting condition, which can be seen in Table 5.
When analyzing the information in Table 5, it is clear that dry machining has the advantage of not having costs related to the production, disposal and pumping of fluid and, therefore, it is the process with the lowest total cost. Taking into account the cost information related to the emulsions, it is seen that, for the three cutting speeds considered, the castor oil-based emulsion presents lower values when compared to the other two emulsions. In addition, the babassu oil-based and synthetic commercial fluids present very similar values for all cutting speeds.
Using the financial analysis presented, the range where each fluid presents the best viability for the process studied was identified. Therefore, Table 6 presents a summary of the economic study of the fluids, facilitating the understanding of the results found.
In Table 6, it can be seen that for all cutting conditions, the dry condition is advantageous up to a certain amount of machined length; after this value, the use of fluid becomes economically viable. Considering Vc = 90 m/min, the synthetic fluid is viable from 19.43 m. At lower cutting speeds, from 10.16 m (for Vc = 70 m/min) and 6.82 m (for Vc = 50 m/min), the castor oil-based fluid is the best from a financial point of view.
4. Conclusion
In this work, it was possible to study the useful life of cutting tools and the surface finish for 12 predetermined machining conditions, both in fluid and dry media. In addition, the economic viability of the conditions used in the tool life tests was evaluated. The results found for the vegetable oil-based formulations were positive. The points below highlight the main conclusions of the study:
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In the tool life tests, it was observed that as the cutting speed decreased, a more favorable situation was found for the use of biodegradable cutting fluids. The formulations based on castor oil and babassu oil reached, respectively, 66.62 and 65.31 minutes to reach the end of the tool life, considering the cutting speed of 50 m/min. In contrast, the synthetic formulation reached only 52.97 minutes.
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In the analysis of the surface finish of the part, the best measured values were related to the turning performed with the synthetic fluid, which presented an average roughness of a maximum of 2.07 μm. The vegetable oil-based emulsions obtained worse results at lower cutting speeds, however the babassu oil-based fluid achieved an average roughness of 1.70 μm in the test with a cutting speed of 90 m/min. As presented in the results and discussions section, the negative result of the vegetable fluids can be credited to the presence of the Built-up Cutting Edge (BUCE).
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Regarding the economic feasibility analysis, it was identified through a comparative evaluation of cost per production volume that up to a certain machined length, the dry machining condition stands out, however, as this variable increases, the use of cutting fluids becomes more economically viable. At a cutting speed of 90 m/min, it was determined that the best choice would be the synthetic commercial fluid, starting from a machining length (Lf) of 19.43 meters. For cutting speeds of 70 and 50 m/min, the castor oil-based emulsion has an economic advantage, starting from machining lengths (Lf) of 10.16 and 6.82 meters, respectively.
In addition to the environmental, social and safety advantages that vegetable oil-based cutting fluids can bring, it is possible to see from this work that the formulations studied have potential for industrial applications, both technically and economically, enabling a sustainable machining process.
5. Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Brazilian agencies Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq (grant 311926/2023-1), Fundação de Amparo à Ciência e Tecnologia de Pernambuco – FACEPE (grants APQ-1021-3.03/24) and Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia em União e Revestimento de Materiais.
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