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Article • GEOUSP 30 • 2026 • https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2179-0892.geousp.2026.224757.en linkcopy

Open-access Global geography of the energy transition and mineral extraction

Geografía global de la transición energética y la extracción minera

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

Environmental challenges and international commitments reinforce the need for a transition to renewable energy sources, driven by the growing economic viability of wind and solar technologies. However, this transition faces significant challenges: the lower energy density of these sources compared to fossil fuels requires larger installations to achieve equivalent power output. Additionally, wind and solar infrastructures have shorter lifespans than fossil fuel-based plants, which require more frequent replacements. Combined with current limitations in recycling processes, these replacements increase the demand for minerals-often extracted in countries of the Global South-and tend to intensify social, environmental, and economic issues associated with mining in these territories. Based on the collection and analysis of data from global reports, articles, and investigations, this study examines the relationship between the expansion of renewable energy and the growth of mining activities, highlighting the implications of this process.

Keywords:
Renewable energy; Mining; Impacts; Global South

Resumo

Desafios ambientais e compromissos internacionais reforçam a necessidade da transição para fontes renováveis de energia, impulsionada pela crescente viabilidade econômica das tecnologias eólica e solar. Essa transição, contudo, enfrenta obstáculos relevantes: a menor densidade energética dessas fontes, em relação às fósseis, exige instalações de maior porte para alcançar potência equivalente; além disso, as infraestruturas eólica e solar apresentam vida útil inferior à das usinas baseadas em combustíveis fósseis, o que demanda reposições mais frequentes. Somadas às limitações atuais dos processos de reciclagem, essas reposições ampliam a demanda por minerais - frequentemente extraídos em países do Sul Global - e tendem a intensificar problemáticas sociais, ambientais e econômicas associadas à mineração nesses territórios. Com base na coleta e na análise de dados provenientes de relatórios, artigos e investigações em escala global, este estudo examina a relação entre a expansão das energias renováveis e o incremento da atividade mineradora, destacando as implicações desse processo.

Palavras-chave:
Energia renovável; mineração; impactos; Sul Global

Resumen

Los desafíos ambientales y los compromisos internacionales refuerzan la necesidad de la transición hacia fuentes de energía renovable, impulsada por la creciente viabilidad económica de las tecnologías eólica y solar. No obstante, esta transición enfrenta obstáculos relevantes: la menor densidad energética de estas fuentes, en comparación con los combustibles fósiles, exige instalaciones de mayor porte para alcanzar una potencia equivalente; además, las infraestructuras eólica y solar presentan una vida útil inferior a la de las centrales basadas en combustibles fósiles, lo que requiere reposiciones más frecuentes. Sumadas a las limitaciones actuales de los procesos de reciclaje, dichas reposiciones amplían la demanda de minerales - a menudo extraídos en países del Sur Global - y tienden a intensificar problemáticas sociales, ambientales y económicas asociadas a la minería en esos territorios. Con base en la recopilación y el análisis de datos provenientes de informes, artículos e investigaciones a escala global, este estudio examina la relación entre la expansión de las energías renovables y el incremento de la actividad minera, destacando las implicaciones de este proceso.

Palabras clave:
Energía renovable; Minería; Impactos; Sur Global

Introduction

Human beings and societies have historically depended on energy for survival, as well as for economic and social progress (Haberl, 2006). As living organisms, individuals obtain energy primarily from food, which converts nutrients into fuel for vital functions. At the collective level, energy is a fundamental pillar for the organization, maintenance, and advancement of societies (Chu et al., 2016).

Currently, energy production and consumption have reached unprecedented levels (EnerData, 2024), supporting infrastructure, powering industries, strengthening communication systems, enabling the transport of people and goods, and ensuring essential services such as lighting, refrigeration, heating, and the operation of medical equipment, among many other applications.

The growing capacity to produce energy over time has triggered successive energy transitions, dynamic processes marked by the rise of new sources relative to previously dominant ones. Historically, these shifts have been associated with technological innovations and broader socioeconomic transformations (Chow et al., 2003). Biomass, particularly wood and other organic materials, was the first dominant energy source; with the Industrial Revolution, between the late 18th century and early 19th centuries, the transition to coal occurred; in the 20th century, the expansion of oil and natural gas followed (Khan et al., 2019). However, it should be noted that earlier sources do not necessarily disappear. In 2024, for example, all major global energy sources reached record levels (Energy Institute, 2025), driven by the growth in worldwide energy consumption (EnerData, 2024). For this reason, part of the literature also describes these shifts as “additions” (York; Bell, 2019).

Although essential to meet global energy demand, the main current sources-oil derivatives, coal, and natural gas-contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions (Gani, 2021), with wide-ranging environmental impacts, including global warming (IPCC, 2022). In response to these effects, the shift towards renewable sources, especially solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power (Chen et al., 2019), has intensified. However, despite their central role in the energy transition, renewable energy technologies have characteristics that make them mineral-intensive: lower energy density (Van Zalk; Behrens, 2018), shorter lifespans compared to conventional sources (Statista, 2023c), and limitations in current recycling processes (Chowdhury et al., 2020; Jensen et al., 2020; Massoud et al., 2023).

This dependence tends to intensify socioenvironmental challenges associated with mining, an activity with significant impacts (Blight, 2011; Mancini; Sala, 2018) that involves land expropriation, control and occupation of large territories, appropriation of common resources (such as land and water), intensive use of energy and water, and generation of large volumes of waste (EPA, 2024). Additionally, a large share of minerals required for the energy transition is extracted in the Global South (Stacciarini; Gonçalves, 2025b )-countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia that often combine lower income levels, higher inequality, histories of colonization, weaker regulatory frameworks, governments dependent on mining revenues, and relatively fragile civil societies. This context facilitates the operation of multinational corporations, reducing costs and increasing profits while transferring socioenvironmental impacts to local populations (Stacciarini; Gonçalves, 2025b). In Brazil, emblematic examples include the disasters of Mariana (2015), Brumadinho (2019), and Maceió (2023), which resulted in hundreds of deaths, population displacement, and large-scale environmental damage (PoEMAS, 2015; Milanez; Felippe, 2021).

To better understand the link between energy transition and mining, this study is organized into five sections, in addition to this introduction, methodology, conclusions, and references. The first presents “energy transition and renewable energy.” The second examines “the relationship between renewable energy and mineral extraction.” The third discusses “the interaction between lifespan, recycling, and mineral demand.” The fourth addresses “the impact of electric vehicles on mineral demand.” Finally, the fifth section considers “social, environmental, and economic implications of the growing mineral demand.”

Methodology

A methodological approach was adopted involving the collection, tabulation, and extensive analysis of data and information related to the nexus between energy transition and mineral demand, as well as social, environmental, and economic implications arising from this process. Data interpretation and discussion were enriched by engagement with various scientific bibliographic sources, including academic articles from several international journals.

The discussion began by mapping different energy sources and their respective contributions to the global energy mix, using data provided by the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2023). To understand the importance of renewable energy sources in mitigating the rise in global temperatures, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report (IPCC, 2022) was consulted.

Data on total investment in renewable energy infrastructure were drawn from the Global Landscape of Renewable Energy Finance 2023 report, published by the International Renewable Energy Agency in partnership with the Climate Policy Initiative (IRENA; CPI, 2023).

To discuss the quantity and demand for metals required to manufacture wind and solar energy generation infrastructure, as well as electric vehicles, cross-sectional data were compiled from the reports Minerals for Climate Action: The Mineral Intensity of the Clean Energy Transition, prepared by the World Bank (WB, 2020), and The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions, published by the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2021). Statistics and information from other global repositories were also included, such as the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA, 2024a; 2024b) and Statista (2023a; 2023b; 2023c), a German company specializing in data collection and visualization.

To assess social, environmental, and economic implications of the growing mineral demand, the analysis began with the definition of “critical minerals” for the energy transition proposed by IRENA (2021). Based on this definition, the main producing countries of cobalt (USGS, 2024), nickel (Statista, 2024c), copper (Statista, 2024b), lithium (Williams, 2024), and rare earth elements (REEs) (Statista, 2024d) were identified using international sources. After compiling this data, a bibliographic and documentary review was conducted-including books, academic articles, news reports, field reports, and interviews-to characterize the forms of extraction in these countries and the associated environmental, economic, and political consequences.

Energy transition and renewable energy

Energy transition refers to the dynamic process of replacing one dominant energy source with another over time. Such changes may unfold over long periods and are influenced by variables such as price competitiveness; shocks affecting dominant sources (temporary constraints arising from different causes); government incentives (institutional and regulatory environments, subsidies, and tax incentives); and attributes that add symbolic value to consumption-such as lower pollution, greater flexibility of energy services, or ease of access-even when initial costs are higher (Fouquet, 2016). However, York and Bell (2019) suggest that the emergence and dominance of a new source should be understood as “additions,” since earlier sources often remain in use even as new ones develop rapidly and may eventually become predominant. This persistence is partly driven by the continued expansion of energy production and consumption on a global scale (Chow et al., 2003; EnerData, 2024; Energy Institute, 2025).

The mapping and analysis (Graph 1) of the current global energy mix show that, despite the rise of oil (29.5%) and natural gas (23.6%), previously dominant sources such as coal (27.2%) and biomass (9.5%) remain relevant.

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Graph 1 -
Global energy mix (2023).

In summary, the global energy mix remains predominantly non-renewable: oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear energy together account for 85.3% of the total. Although they are fundamental in meeting energy demand, these sources, especially fossil fuels, are responsible for significant greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to global warming and other environmental impacts (Gani, 2021; IPCC, 2022). In light of this, the need to transition toward renewable energy sources has intensified (Chen et al., 2019), driving investments in research, development, and implementation of solutions such as solar PV, wind power, bioenergy, biofuels, hydropower, wave energy, geothermal energy, and hybrid technologies that integrate multiple sources with storage systems. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency and the Climate Policy Initiative (IRENA; CPI, 2023), approximately USD 3.4 trillion was invested in renewable energy infrastructure between 2013 and 2022. Of this total, 86.5% was allocated toward solar and wind energy projects, corresponding to 47.8% (about USD 1.63 trillion) and 38.7% (approximately USD 1.31 trillion), respectively.

Relationship between renewable energy and mineral extraction

The transition toward a global energy mix based on renewable sources presents significant challenges, as these technologies require substantially larger quantities of mineral resources compared to conventional sources based on fossil fuels (WB, 2020; IEA, 2021; IRENA, 2021). Data from the IEA (2021) indicate that an onshore wind power plant may require up to nine times more mineral resources than a natural gas power plant of similar capacity (Graph 2); in offshore projects, this number can reach fifteen times more.

This difference stems primarily from the lower power density of wind farms (Van Zalk; Behrens, 2018) compared to coal- or natural-gas-fired power plants. In other words, because wind energy conversion faces physical limitations and requires spacing between turbines, a more extensive infrastructure-and therefore a more material-intensive one-is required to produce an equivalent amount of energy. By way of illustration, while the Chinese coal-fired Tuoketuo Power Station, one of the largest in the world, has an installed capacity of 6,720 MW, the most powerful wind turbines, with blades exceeding 100 m, typically operate in the 10-20 MW range (EERE, 2024).

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Graph 2 -
Material intensity (kg/MW) in the construction of different energy generation technologies.

Given this scenario, a model proposed by Watari et al. (2019) projects that the energy transition could lead to an increase of 200%-900% in mineral production flows in the electricity sector and 350%-700% in the transport sector (electric vehicles) between 2015 and 2050, depending on the scenarios for meeting targets established by international agencies. In this context, some minerals have come to be classified as “critical” for energy transition. Although definitions vary among institutions and authors, IRENA (2021) characterizes these minerals as essential to transition technologies whose supply chains face significant challenges, such as high geographic concentration of production, declining ore grade/quality, and potential supply expansions that may destabilize prices and the balance between supply and demand.

According to IRENA (2021), critical minerals include cobalt, copper, nickel, lithium, and REEs, with particular emphasis on neodymium and dysprosium. However, this list may vary depending on authors, analytical frameworks, and time periods, and may also include aluminum, chromium, gallium, germanium, graphite, indium, iron, lanthanum, lead, manganese, molybdenum, platinum, rhenium, ruthenium, scandium, niobium, silver, vanadium, tantalum, titanium, yttrium, and zinc (Church; Crawford, 2018; IEA, 2021; IRENA, 2021). These minerals are essential for the manufacture of infrastructure and equipment in the energy sector, providing strength, durability, conductivity, and efficiency to their components. In wind power generation systems, for example, they are fundamental in the production of towers, rotor blades, gearboxes, generators, battery storage systems, and internal and external wiring, among other elements (Eberle et al., 2023).

In offshore wind installations, the demand for minerals is even greater due to large-scale foundations, transition structures, and the extensive network of subsea cables required for grid connection and energy transmission. One example is the Hollandse Kust Zuid (HKZ) wind farm, currently under construction off the coast of the Netherlands (Figure 1). Developed by Vattenfall (2024), the project includes 139 turbines, each 251 meters tall and with 94-meter blades, installed on subsea foundations at depths ranging from 18-27 meters-a set of characteristics that highlights the high material intensity required by advances in the renewable energy sector (WB, 2020; IEA, 2021).

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Figure 1 -
Offshore wind generation structures and their high dependence on minerals in manufacturing and installation.

Although they still account for a relatively small share of the global energy mix (Graph 1), wind and solar generation infrastructures are currently the fastest-growing energy sources. Between 1997 and 2022, global wind power capacity increased by approximately 120 times, from 7.5 GW to 899 GW (IRENA, 2024b). Today, about 93% of this capacity is onshore and 7% offshore (IRENA, 2024b). While still modest, the offshore share has expanded steadily and significantly: a decade ago it accounted for only 1.9% of the total. Meanwhile, solar PV technology, which converts sunlight into electricity via solar cells (IRENA, 2024b), went from 74 GW in 2011 to 1,062 GW in 2022 (Graph 3), representing a 14-fold growth.

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Graph 3 -
Rapid expansion of global solar energy generation.

This expansion is largely due to cost reductions, which have made solar energy one of the most attractive options for investors in many regions (Statista, 2023a). In countries such as Brazil, solar energy is already significantly more advantageous than fossil fuel-based technologies (EPE, 2021). Consequently, the adoption of this source is expected to continue growing rapidly, especially in countries with high solar irradiance, including many in Africa, Latin America, and Asia.

Current PV technologies predominantly use aluminum, silicon, copper, and silver, along with other minerals in smaller quantities, such as lead, zinc, indium, molybdenum, gallium, tellurium, and nickel (WB, 2020). According to World Bank projections, the expansion of solar panels is expected to significantly increase the demand for and extraction of these critical minerals in the coming decades (WB, 2020).

PV energy is highly modular and is deployed in projects ranging from small residential grid-connected systems to large-scale power plants with millions of panels. In terms of spatial scale, India has emerged as one of the leaders in the implementation of large solar parks. By 2020, around nine Ultra Mega Solar Power Parks were either operating or under development in the country, totaling approximately 14,693 MW (Shah, 2020). The largest of these, the Bhadla Solar Park, has a capacity of 2,245 MW and covers about 5,700 hectares, roughly the equivalent of 8,000 soccer fields (BRC, 2023). With approximately 10 million modules, visible from space (Figure 2), the complex illustrates the vast amount of mineral resources required for the development of this form of energy generation.

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Figure 2 -
Solar parks with millions of photovoltaic modules, such as Bhadla Solar Park (India), illustrate the high mineral intensity associated with this form of energy generation.

The average power output of a solar panel depends on factors such as type, efficiency, size, and local solar conditions, including tilt and shading (Dobos, 2013). Panel models range from less than 150 watts to more than 550 watts per unit. In more modern equipment, the average output is around 400 watts (Allen; Tynan, 2023), meaning that approximately 2,500 panels are required to generate 1 MW. Considering this average of 400 watts per panel, the current global production capacity of 1,062 gigawatts (GW) (Graph 3) requires roughly 2.7 billion solar panels.

Additionally, in the context of accelerating digitalization of the economy, major technology companies have intensified investments in renewable energies-both as part of sustainability strategies and to reinforce their reputation among the public and investors-which further accelerates the expansion of solar and wind power plants (Stacciarini; Gonçalves, 2025a ). For instance, Google (2024) and Amazon (2024) state that they offset 100% of their electricity consumption, including that of their data centers, via corporate renewable energy procurement mechanisms. Microsoft, in turn, has committed to achieving this goal by 2030 (Welsch, 2022). To meet these targets, Amazon reports maintaining, either via ownership or partnership, around 500 solar and wind projects worldwide (Amazon, 2024). Meanwhile, Google states that between 2010 and 2023 it signed more than 115 clean energy purchase agreements, with capacity equivalent to approximately 36 million PV panels (Google, 2024). In 2024, the company also announced that its future data centers will be strategically located near solar and wind farms, ensuring direct supply from these sources (Calma, 2024a ). An illustrative case is the Orion Solar Belt complex in Texas, designed to supply energy to Google’s data centers: with more than 1.3 million modules, it has a capacity of 900 MW (SP Energy, 2024). In the same year, Microsoft announced the signing of one of the largest corporate agreements for the future purchase of renewable energy, estimated at around USD 17 billion (Calma, 2024b). These figures highlight the extraordinary demand for minerals as raw materials required to enable such infrastructures.

The interaction between lifespan, recycling, and mineral demand

In addition to requiring larger quantities of minerals to produce the same amount of energy, renewable generation infrastructures, such as solar and wind systems, have a significantly shorter lifespan than those powered by fossil fuels. This implies more frequent substitutions and, consequently, an additional increase in the demand for mineral resources. For instance, while coal-fired or nuclear power plants can operate for approximately 40-50 years, solar installations have an estimated lifespan of 25-30 years, and wind power plants typically last 20-25 years (Statista, 2023c).

Compounding this situation is the fact that the recycling of these infrastructures-especially solar panels, wind turbines, and batteries-remains quite limited. The barriers range from economic feasibility to technical complexity, as well as the lack of dedicated infrastructure and specific policies and incentives (Chowdhury et al., 2020; Jensen et al., 2020; Milanez, 2021; Massoud et al., 2023). As a result, many of these structures become significant environmental liabilities (Liu; Barlow, 2017; Qi; Zhang, 2017; Dehghani-Sanij et al., 2019), increasing environmental pressure and reinforcing the need for new mineral extraction to enable their replacement.

The impact of electric vehicles on mineral demand

Another technology central to the energy transition, and directly associated with the rising demand for mineral resources, is electric vehicles. They stand out not only because they use electricity-often generated from renewable sources previously discussed-in place of fossil fuels, but also because they require larger quantities of minerals in their composition and manufacturing, particularly due to their batteries and electrical systems (Ballinger et al., 2019).

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2021), a typical electric vehicle may require up to six times more critical minerals than a conventional vehicle (Graph 4). Predominant minerals include copper, graphite, nickel, manganese, cobalt, lithium, and REEs. Aluminum and steel-produced from bauxite and iron, respectively-are common to both electric and conventional vehicles. Batteries, which account for a significant share of the volume and weight of an electric vehicle, may occupy the entire chassis and weigh hundreds of kilograms (Dapena, 2021).

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Graph 4 -
Material intensity (kg of minerals per vehicle): comparison between electric and conventional vehicles.

In 2022, approximately 26 million electric vehicles were in operation worldwide (Statista, 2023b). Around 63.5% of this fleet was sold within the previous two years, indicating accelerated growth aligned with the 2015 Paris Declaration on Electro-mobility and Climate Change, which projected about 100 million electric cars by 2030 (UNFCCC, 2015). This pace of expansion highlights the scale of mineral demand required to sustain the growth of electromobility.

Social, environmental, and economic implications of the growing mineral demand

Knowing that the transition to renewable energy sources will be mineral-intensive, we must reflect on the implications of expanding mining activities to meet this new demand. Mining itself is a high-impact activity, characterized by land dispossession, control and occupation of large territories, and appropriation of nature and common goods (such as land and water). The process-from extraction in the soil and subsoil to transport to processing plants for crushing, separation, and refining-requires large amounts of energy and water and generates substantial volumes of waste (Freslon; Cooney, 2018). Not surprisingly, tens of billions of tons of mining tailings are produced each year (EPA, 2024), placing mining among the most impactful human activities today (Blight, 2011).

In another study (Stacciarini; Gonçalves, 2025b ), we showed that most of these extractions occur in the Global South, a term used in recent decades to designate countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, replacing expressions such as “underdeveloped countries” or “Third World” (Buarque, 2023). Historically, mineral exploration in these countries has been advantageous for multinational corporations, which often find an abundance of resources alongside less stringent labor and environmental regulations, reducing production costs and increasing profits (Hilson; Haselip, 2004; Davis; Tilton, 2005; Freslon; Cooney, 2018; Coumans, 2019; Gonçalves; Milanez, 2019; Svampa, 2019; Alonso, 2024). Faced with the imperative of development, many governments are induced to cede territories and resources to large neo-extractivist projects, accepting social and environmental impacts in exchange for limited economic returns, such as royalties (Gonçalves; Milanez, 2019). As a result, host countries in the Global South often receive few fiscal benefits (taxes and royalties) while bearing socioenvironmental burdens (Davis; Tilton, 2005).

The case of cobalt-essential for energy transition infrastructure, with electric vehicle batteries accounting for a significant share of recent demand (Statista, 2024c)-is particularly emblematic. Approximately 74% of global production is concentrated in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (USGS, 2024), a Central African country colonized by Belgium until the 1960s. There, extraction often occurs without adequate safety conditions, exposing workers to toxic metals and increasing the risk of serious illnesses (Sovacool et al., 2020). In addition to large mining companies, thousands of Congolese workers engage in artisanal mining under precarious conditions. Recent investigations have identified child labor, deaths caused by tunnel collapses, and unsafe handling of ore by women and children (Maconachie, 2024). The extracted cobalt is typically sold to intermediaries, via which it eventually reaches large corporations, enabling these companies to avoid direct links to such violations. Organizations have also reported water contamination near mining sites, affecting fishing, agriculture, and community health, including increases in gynecological, dermatological, and reproductive diseases (Raid; Afrewatch, 2024).

A similar set of tensions and contradictions can be observed in the case of nickel, a critical mineral for batteries and energy storage systems. About half of global production comes from Indonesia, a former Dutch colony that gained independence only in 1945 (Statista, 2024c). Driven by the demand associated with energy transition, the country increased its production sixfold between 2010 and 2023 (Statista, 2024g). However, before being transformed into solar panels, wind turbine structures, and batteries, much of Indonesia’s nickel is extracted and processed using coal, a highly polluting energy source (Jong, 2023). This growing coal consumption has placed Indonesia among the world’s largest producers, consumers, and emitters of CO₂ (IEA, 2024; Climate Watch, 2024). Additionally, mining and smelting activities have contaminated soils, water bodies, and coastal areas across the archipelago, harming ecosystems and communities that depend on fishing and agriculture (Sawal, 2022; CRI, 2024). Working conditions are also precarious, with at least 47 deaths recorded in nickel mines between 2015 and 2022 (Amindoni, 2023).

Copper, the non-precious metal with the highest electrical conductivity, is indispensable for wind turbines, solar panels, electric vehicles, and modern power grids, and is therefore classified as critical for energy transition (ICA, 2024). Global production increased from 16 million metric tons in 2010 to 22 million in 2023, with projections indicating further growth in the coming decades (Statista, 2024g). Chile leads global production (24%), followed by Peru and the DRC (10% each) (Statista, 2024b). In Chile, socioenvironmental impacts are significant. In the northern regions, Indigenous communities live with toxic dust generated by mining operations, which increases risks of illness (Zanetta-Colombo et al., 2022). On the central coast, the Ventanas smelter was shut down in 2023 after protests against decades of pollution, which had turned the region into a so-called “sacrifice zone,” marked by recurrent episodes of air, water, and soil contamination (Balcazar, 2016; Gorena et al., 2020; Milesi, 2022). In Peru, investigations have revealed water contamination and elevated levels of toxic metals-including arsenic, lead, and mercury-among residents living near mining projects (Anistia Internacional, 2021; Custodio, 2022). In the DRC, similar challenges to those observed in the cobalt supply chain persist, including labor precarization, environmental contamination, and human rights violations (Sovacool et al., 2020; Amnesty International, 2023; Maconachie, 2024; Raid; Afrewatch, 2024).

Lithium also illustrates asymmetries embedded in the energy transition. Global consumption increased by 686% between 2010 and 2023, driven primarily by lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles, which accounted for 87% of total demand in 2023 (Statista, 2024g). Although Australia leads global production (46.6%), around 60% of known reserves are in Latin America, particularly in the so-called “Lithium Triangle”-Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia-which already accounts for approximately 30% of global production (Williams, 2024). In this region, extraction takes place in salt-flat deserts, where lithium is obtained by pumping mineral-rich brines and evaporating them in large open-air ponds (Ahmad, 2020). This water-intensive process affects water availability in already arid environments, harming agriculture, livestock activities, and the livelihoods of local communities (Liu; Agusdinata, 2020). In addition to soil and ecosystem contamination, other concerns include limited job creation, relatively low royalty revenues, and the intensification of socioenvironmental conflicts (Ahmad, 2020; Mazzieri; Montanari, 2024).

Finally, REEs, a group of 17 metals with unique properties, are indispensable for a wide range of technologies (GAAG, 2024), including magnets and super magnets, metal alloys, electronics, batteries, catalysts, and specialized glass and ceramics, being fundamental in solar panels, wind generators, and electric vehicles (Balaram, 2019; GAAG, 2024). China’s dominance in global production (68.3%) (Statista, 2024d) coexists with severe environmental impacts, such as water and soil pollution resulting from the intensive use of reagents during extraction and processing, posing health risks on local populations (Liu et al., 2019; Standaert, 2019; Caixin Global, 2022). Myanmar, the third-largest producer (Statista, 2024d), doubled its production between 2018 and 2023 (Statista, 2024h). However, this expansion has occurred amid serious irregularities, including illegal mining, control by militias, lack of environmental regulation, and human rights violations (Global Witness, 2022; 2024). Reported consequences include illnesses, fatal accidents, and chemical exposure, as well as an increase in violence, drug trafficking, and prostitution in mined areas (Global Witness, 2022; 2024; Naing, 2024).

Conclusions

This study examined the interconnection between energy transition and global mineral demand. It began with the observation that the global energy mix remains predominantly non-renewable, accounting for 85.3% of total supply, with oil (29.5%), coal (27.2%), and natural gas (23.6%) as the main sources, each associated with significant environmental impacts. The analysis then highlighted how environmental challenges and international agreements have stimulated the transition toward renewable energy sources. This shift has been further supported by the recent economic viability of solar and wind technologies in several regions, which attracted approximately USD 1.63 trillion and USD 1.31 trillion in investments between 2013 and 2022, respectively, resulting in a rapid expansion of electricity generation from these sources.

However, although central to the energy transition, renewable technologies present characteristics-such as lower energy density, shorter lifespans compared to conventional energy sources, and limitations in recycling processes-that make them highly mineral-intensive, challenging the narrative of “sustainable, renewable, and clean energy.” In light of this context, demand for certain minerals has grown rapidly, and some of them have come to be classified as critical minerals for the energy transition.

The analysis of the geographical origin of these minerals-cobalt in the DRC, nickel in Indonesia, copper in the Andes, lithium in the “Lithium Triangle,” and REEs in China and Myanmar-revealed that their extraction largely occurs in countries of the Global South. These are nations in Africa, Latin America, and Asia that often combine lower income levels, higher inequality, histories of colonial exploitation, weaker regulatory frameworks, governments dependent on mining revenues, and relatively fragile civil societies. In such contexts, socioenvironmental problems are recurrent, including labor precarization, human rights violations, water and soil contamination, emissions associated with mineral processing, and the formation of so-called “sacrifice zones.” In general, local populations retain few economic benefits and have limited access to technologies their territories help enable-such as solar panels, wind turbines, and electric vehicles-revealing the persistence of historical asymmetries between centers of consumption and extractive peripheries.

Thus, the energy transition will only fulfill its climate promise if it is also materially and territorially just. This requires aligning decarbonization goals with explicit objectives of reducing material intensity, strengthening rights, and ensuring a more equitable distribution of benefits, particularly in territories that supply critical minerals. Without this dual effort, there is a risk that the response to the climate crisis will reproduce-under new forms-longstanding patterns of inequality and environmental degradation.

Acknowledgements

We thank the State University of Goiás, to which we are affiliated.

References

  • Declaração de disponibilidade de dados
    Todo o conjunto de dados que dá suporte aos resultados deste estudo foi publicado no próprio artigo
  • Funding statement
    We also thank the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) for the projects approved under CNPq Call No. 09/2022 - Research Productivity Grants (PQ) and Public Call MCTI/CNPq No. 16/2024 - Support for International Scientific, Technological, and Innovation Research Projects, awarded to the second author.

Edited by

  • Editor do artigo:
    Paula Juliasz

Data availability

Todo o conjunto de dados que dá suporte aos resultados deste estudo foi publicado no próprio artigo

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    03 July 2026
  • Date of issue
    2026

History

  • Received
    15 Aug 2024
  • Accepted
    07 Oct 2025
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