Thermal performance of a metal shipping container monitored in Cascavel, Paraná, BrazilAbstract
Given the increasing use of shipping containers for housing, this study evaluates the thermal performance of a 20-ft container (6.05 × 2.43 × 2.59 m) in Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil through short-term monitoring and comparative analysis of internal and external temperatures relative to local climatic conditions. A TempU 07B data logger is used for continuous monitoring over seven days. The hygrothermal performance of the container is characterized and compared to thermal comfort limits defined by NBR 15575, ASHRAE 55, and ISO 7730. The internal temperature of the container showed strong correlation with solar irradiance, reaching 27.22 °C on sunny days and dropping to 10–11 °C on cloudy days, exceeding thermal comfort limits defined by NBR 15575 and ASHRAE 55. Linear regression (R2 = 0.77) indicated an average increase of 7.1 °C for every 100 W m−2 of irradiance. The thermal performance was insufficient to guarantee habitability without air conditioning.
Keywords:
shipping containers; thermal performance; thermal comfort; solar irradiance
Introduction
Reusing shipping containers in civil construction has gradually gained attention as an alternative housing solution because of its economic viability, construction speed, and sustainability potential. According to Guedes & Buoro (2015), reusing these structures is not only an approach for mitigating environmental impacts related to the disposal of materials but also an innovative response to social demands for affordable housing. Franco & Campos (2016) reinforced that, as a construction resource, the a container offers architectural flexibility and contributes to waste reduction, which are central aspects for urban sustainability.
Thus far, several studies highlighted critical limitations related to the thermal performance of these structures. Gonçalves et al. (2018) demonstrated that containers exhibit significant thermal conductivity because of their metallic composition, which results in overheating under conditions of high solar radiation and underheating during periods of intense cold. Oliveira & Mendes (2021) corroborated this diagnosis by indicating that solar radiation incident on metallic surfaces amplifies internal thermal variations, which compromises habitability without employing mitigation strategies.
In Brazil, there is a growing trend towards the adoption of modular construction systems, which includes the reuse of metal containers, driven by factors such as cost reduction, speed of execution, construction flexibility, and the potential for material reuse. These systems have been applied in temporary housing, social housing, provisional facilities, and commercial uses, and they are frequently associated with sustainability strategies and construction rationalization. Despite these operational advantages, the suitability of these modules to Brazilian climatic conditions requires further in-depth technical evaluations related to thermal performance and environmental comfort conditions.
Fariña et al. (2024) analyzed the energy of standardized containers, which indicated that poor thermal performance can compromise overall energy efficiency, requiring interventions such as insulation and ventilation. Figaj et al. (2024) achieved similar results when analyzing thermal behavior in European locations and concluded that climate exerts a determining influence. However, the application of design solutions can significantly reduce heat losses and gains. Moura et al. (2024) advanced this discussion by demonstrating that adopting green roofs on containers can substantially improve thermal performance, with the substrate thickness acting as a critical factor that determines the effectiveness of the solution.
Beyond the issue of the envelope, ensuring airtight sealing is crucial for energy efficiency. Tanyer et al. (2018) highlighted that airtightness directly affects the energy efficiency of housing containers, emphasizing that sealing failures intensify energy consumption and reduce thermal comfort. Costa & Ribeiro (2021) corroborated this finding by evaluating different thermal insulation strategies, concluding that the combination of insulating materials and reflective barriers can minimize excessive thermal conduction from steel, which optimizes performance in various climates.
The studies cited in the literature review are mostly qualitative, and they are used to conceptually ground the thermal behaviors of shipping containers, effects of solar radiation, and need for mitigation strategies. Specific quantitative values such as temperatures, heat fluxes, or percentage reductions are not reproduced in the text because this dissertation is a direct experimental analysis based on measurements conducted on the container.
In Brazil, standardization provides objective parameters for the analysis. NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2021) and its amendment (ABNT, 2013) establish performance requirements for residential buildings, including the thermal evaluation of the building envelope. Santos & Almeida (2020) highlighted that, in low-cost housing, compliance with Brazilian bioclimatic zoning is fundamental for reducing thermal discomfort, which directly applies to the use of containers. In addition, NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005) defines Brazilian bioclimatic zoning and presents construction guidelines adapted to each region. The municipality of Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil is located in Bioclimatic Zone 2 according to ABNT NBR 15220-3; this classification is used in this study exclusively for standardizing the thermal performance of buildings. According to the Köppen-Geiger classification, the region has a Cfa type climate characterized as humid subtropical, with hot summers, mild winters, and no defined dry season. The average annual temperature is in the range 18–20 °C, with average maximum temperatures exceeding 28 °C in the warmest months (between December and February) and average minimum temperatures between 8 and 10 °C in the coldest months, especially in June and July, when cold air incursions are frequent. The relative air humidity has high average values throughout the year, between 70 % and 80 %, with seasonal variations associated with the action of frontal systems and availability of solar radiation. These climatic characteristics confer high daily and seasonal thermal variability, which justify the experimental analysis of the thermal behavior of the container under real environmental exposure conditions. Martins & Álvarez (2018), who used data loggers for thermal performance monitoring, showed that experimental methodologies based on in situ data collection are effective tools for characterizing the internal conditions of unconventional housing prototypes.
Therefore, existing literature indicates a consensus regarding the use of containers as housing as a sustainable and innovative solution; however, it faces significant challenges related to thermal performance. The use of technical standards (ABNT, ASHRAE, and ISO) and monitoring methodologies (Martins & Álvarez, 2018) is essential for diagnosing these limitations. The thermal comfort in built environments can be evaluated using different methodological approaches, such as the predicted mean vote (PMV) and percentage of dissatisfied people (PPD) proposed by Fanger and consolidated in ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55 standards, which are traditionally used in studies that consider physiological, environmental, and human occupancy variables.
Characterizing thermal behaviors through environmental variables such as air temperature and solar irradiance is an appropriate and widely used approach for experimental analyses aimed at diagnosing the thermal performance of building envelopes and understanding the physical response of building systems to external climatic conditions. In this context, this study focuses on the comparative analysis between the internal and external temperatures of a housing container to identify the thermal limitations of the construction solution and support proposals for improvement without the direct application of human comfort indices. Meanwhile, improvement proposals such as green roofs (Moura et al., 2024), insulation strategies (Costa & Ribeiro, 2021), and improved sealing (Tanyer et al., 2018) have emerged as viable methods for achieving adequate thermal comfort. Given this context, this study aims to analyze the thermal performance of containers as habitable or storage spaces.
Material and Methods
The experiment is conducted in a standard 20-foot metal shipping container (length: 6.05 m; width: 2.43 m; height: 2.59 m) repurposed as a living space and installed in the municipality of Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil (Figure 1). The module has a structure composed of corrugated carbon steel sheets (average thickness: 2.0–2.5 mm), which are typically used for this construction system. Steel has high thermal conductivity (≈45–60 W·m1·K1) and low thermal resistance, which favors rapid heat transfer between the external and internal environments and results in low thermal inertia for the envelope. The container was evaluated in its original configuration without active air conditioning systems or additional thermal insulation for determining the critical condition of thermal performance and enabling a direct analysis of the effect of external climatic conditions on the internal environment.
Temperature measurements were conducted using a TempU 07B data logger (Figure 2) installed inside the container 1.5 m from floor level, which is a height representative of the occupied zone, as is standard practice in thermal comfort studies. The monitoring was performed continuously, with recordings conducted every minute, from August 19 to 25, 2025. This timeframe was selected because of the availability of the monitoring system and occurrence of contrasting meteorological conditions typical of the winter–spring transition in Cascavel, Paraná. During the analyzed period, days of high solar irradiance and higher temperatures were recorded, along with cold, cloudy, and humid days, enabling the evaluation of the thermal responses of the container to significant variations in solar radiation and external temperature over a short-term monitoring period. These characteristics make the thermal performance of the container strongly dependent on climatic conditions (especially solar radiation), justifying the high thermal sensitivity observed and the need for passive mitigation strategies to enable its residential use.
The installation site of the container was located at geographic coordinates 24°59′18″ S and 53°26′48″ W at an altitude of 747 m in the municipality of Cascavel, Paraná. This site was oriented east–west and had a dark external color, conditions that favored a greater absorption of solar radiation throughout the day. This configuration intensified the heat gain attributed to radiation and contributed to the high sensitivity of the module to external climatic conditions, which reflected in the internal thermal behavior observed during monitoring. According to NBR 15220, this region falls within the Brazilian bioclimatic zone 2 characterized by cold winters and mild to hot summers. Under the Köppen–Geiger international climate classification, the climate of the region is classified as Cfa, which corresponds to a humid subtropical climate with hot summers, cold winters, and the absence of a defined dry season. This is a condition that directly affects solar gains and the thermal variability observed in the container.
External environmental variables, including outdoor air temperature, external relative humidity, and global horizontal solar irradiance, were obtained from the solarimetric station of the State University of Western Paraná (UNIOESTE), located on the Cascavel, Paraná campus. The station is equipped with meteorological sensors suitable for environmental measurements and operates continuously under standardized atmospheric monitoring conditions.
External data used in this study correspond to the same monitoring period as that of the internal environment of the container, from August 19 to 25, 2025, with a temporal resolution of 1 min. This helps ensure temporal synchronization between the internal and external variables analyzed. The use of an institutional solarimetric station ensures greater reliability of the external measurements because they are conducted in an open environment with dedicated instrumentation and consolidated procedures for acquiring meteorological data.
According to the technical specifications of the temperature data logger published by the manufacturer Tzone Digital, the declared accuracy of the device is ±0.3 °C between 0 and 60 °C and ±0.6 °C outside this range; for relative humidity, it is ±3 % between 10 % and 90 % and ±5 % outside this range (Tzone Digital, n.d.). The equipment was positioned at the geometric center of the container, 1.5 m from the ground and away from the side walls, and protected against direct solar radiation, thereby ensuring the representativeness of the internal air conditions. Further, it is programmed to obtain readings at 1-min intervals (Figure 2).
The internal air temperature, external air temperature, internal relative humidity, and external relative humidity were measured during the study. These factors are essential for evaluating thermal comfort and analyzing the thermal balance and hygrothermal changes inside the container. There were no experimental repetitions and only one container was studied because no numerical models or inferential statistical analyses were used. Internal and external relative humidity values were monitored continuously and used as complementary variables when analyzing hygrothermal performance without integration into regression models. Global solar irradiance data were obtained from the UNIOESTE solarimetric station in Cascavel, Paraná; these data represent a reliable institutional source with a temporal resolution of 1 min and synchronization with temperature measurements. The same source was used to record the external temperature and relative humidity.
In addition to thermal and hygrometric variables, this study considered global horizontal solar irradiance, which is a fundamental variable to interpret the thermal performance of the container. Global solar irradiance was recorded continuously at a temporal resolution of 1 min, over the period from August 19 to 25, 2025 and synchronized with internal measurements of the container. The inclusion of this variable enabled evaluating the direct relationship between solar radiation incidence and variations in internal and external temperatures, as well as the performance of the statistical correlation and linear regression analyses presented in the results.
Results and Discussion
Figure 3 shows the relationship between global horizontal solar irradiance and external and internal temperatures for the period of August 19 to 24, 2025 in Cascavel–PR.
Relationship between global horizontal solar irradiance and external and internal temperatures.
Table 1 presents the average values and standard deviations of global solar irradiance and external and internal container temperatures, obtained between August 19 and 25, 2025, a period representative of winter conditions in Cascavel–PR.
Average values, standard deviations, daily maximum and minimum temperatures of global solar irradiance and external and internal container temperatures during the period from August 19 to 25, 2025.
The highest heating of the container was observed on August 22, when the average solar irradiance reached 224.18 W m2. This was associated with the highest average external (25.01 °C) and internal (27.22 °C) temperatures. This result highlights the strong correlation between incident solar radiation and thermal increase inside the module, which indicates thermal amplification promoted by the metallic envelope. Throughout the analyzed period, the internal temperature remained systematically higher than the external temperature, with average differences between 1.5 °C and 2.5 °C characterizing a limited capacity for dissipating solar gains.
Analysis of standard deviations reinforces this behavior. On August 21 and 22, the largest irradiance deviations (301.43 and 307.58 W m2) indicate high variability in solar radiation throughout the day, reflecting significant internal thermal oscillation with a maximum standard deviation of 10.23 °C. These values highlight the low efficiency of the container envelope in attenuating daily thermal fluctuations, which is in disagreement with the thermal performance criteria of ABNT NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2021).
In contrast, greater thermal stability was observed on August 24 and 25, which were characterized by low average irradiance (21.74 and 65.02 W m⁻2) and reduced standard deviations; variations of less than 1.6 °C were observed in both indoor and outdoor environments. However, average indoor temperatures remained between 10.28 °C and 11.12 °C, which is below the thermal comfort range recommended by NBR 15220 (18–26 °C), indicating unsatisfactory performance in cold conditions.
The hygrometric analysis results complements these findings. The internal relative humidity showed a behavior inversely proportional to temperature, with average values close to 40 % on days of high irradiance and around 85 % on cold and cloudy days. Although the humidity remained within acceptable limits, its association with thermal extremes intensified the hygrothermal discomfort inside the container. These results confirm that the evaluated container exhibits inadequate thermal performance under both high and low solar irradiance conditions. Overheating and high thermal variability compromise habitability during periods of high solar radiation, while internal temperatures remain outside the comfort zone during periods of low solar radiation despite greater stability, highlighting the limitations of the analyzed construction solution.
Figures 4 and 5 show a comparison of the container's thermal performance on days with high and low irradiance on August 22nd and 24th, 2025.
Hourly variation of solar irradiance and internal and external temperatures of the container on 08/22/2025.
Hourly variation of solar irradiance and internal and external temperatures of the container on 08/24/2025.
A comparison between August 22 and August 24, 2025 highlights the direct effect of solar irradiance on the thermal behavior of the housing container. On August 22, 2025, the global horizontal irradiance curve exhibited a typical pattern for a clear sky, reaching values close to 850 W m2 between 12:00 PM and 1:00 PM. This high availability of radiation was reflected in the temperatures: the external temperature reached average values above 30 °C in the afternoon, while the internal temperature exceeded 40 °C. The results configured a scenario of pronounced overheating, which exceeded comfort limits established by NBR 15575 (18–26 °C for bioclimatic zone 2). In addition, the internal temperature remained high even after a reduction in solar radiation, highlighting the effect of thermal inertia and low dissipation of heat accumulated by the metallic structure.
On August 24, 2025, the weather conditions were characterized by cloudy skies and instability. The irradiance showed very low values, with scattered peaks near 140 W m2 and abrupt variations associated with the presence of clouds. Given this context, both external and internal temperatures remained low, with averages ranging between 9 °C and 11 °C, i.e., below the comfort range established by the standard. The difference between internal and external environments was minimal (~1 to 2 °C), reflecting the absence of significant solar gains.
The combined analysis indicates that the container exhibits insufficient thermal performance in both scenarios. On days with high radiation, overheating compromises habitability under summer conditions, while underheating occurs on cold and cloudy days, resulting in thermal discomfort under winter conditions. This behavior reinforces the need for passive design strategies such as thermal insulation, shading, and natural ventilation, which can mitigate thermal fluctuations and ensure comfortable conditions for occupants.
Thermal behaviors observed in the container can be attributed to the physical properties of steel, which is the material that constitutes most of its envelope. Steel has high thermal conductivity and low heat storage capacity, which favors the rapid transfer of energy between the external environment and interior of the module. Under high-irradiance conditions, this characteristic results in intense and rapid heat gains, while accelerated heat loss occurs during periods of low radiation or reduced external temperatures. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of steel plays a central role in amplifying internal thermal variations observed throughout the monitoring period.
Table 2 presents the average values of irradiance and temperature monitored inside and outside the container between August 22nd and 24th, 2025.
Average values of irradiance and temperature monitored in the container between August 22 and 24, 2025.
Table 2 compares August 22 and August 24, 2025; the results confirm that the container presents unsatisfactory thermal performance in both scenarios. In the first scenario, high irradiance (850 W m2) resulted in internal overheating above 40 °C, exceeding the comfort limits defined by NBR 15575 and ASHRAE 55. In the second scenario, under low irradiance (maximum of 140 W m2), internal temperatures varied between 9 and 11 °C, which is below the comfort range, indicating underheating. These results confirm that the container does not meet regulatory requirements under any climatic conditions, reinforcing the need for passive strategies such as insulation, shading, and natural ventilation.
Mfamadi et al. (2024) conducted an experimental study in Johannesburg (South Africa) using container housing monitored over a 14-day period and identified internal temperatures between 6 °C and 42 °C. However, units with thermal insulation recorded temperatures 2–9 °C lower than those without insulation, confirming the direct effect of the metal structure of the container on hygrothermal performance. These results indicate that overheating and underheating problems in containers are not restricted to the Brazilian context but occur consistently in short-term experimental monitoring under specific climatic conditions during the analyzed period.
Figure 6 shows the influence of weather conditions on the thermal performance of the container, comparing a clear day (August 22, 2025) and a cloudy day (August 24, 2025).
Comparison between the hourly curves of global horizontal solar irradiance and air temperature for August 22, 2025 (clear sky) and August 24, 2025 (cloudy sky), in Cascavel.
Figure 6 compares the hourly behavior of global solar irradiance and the internal temperature of the container on August 22, 2025 (clear sky) and August 24, 2025 (cloudy sky), highlighting the strong dependence of thermal performance on external radiative conditions. On August 22, irradiance reached values close to 850 W·m2, which resulted in a progressive increase in internal temperature that exceeded 40 °C in the afternoon, characterizing a condition of severe thermal discomfort. In contrast, on August 24, irradiance remained low throughout the day, with maximum values of 140 W·m2. The internal temperature remained practically stable, but at low levels (between 9 and 11 °C) without significant heating of the environment.
A comparison between the two days shows that the container exhibits highly sensitive behavior to variations in solar irradiance in the absence of passive thermal control strategies, resulting in thermal extremes under both clear sky and high cloud cover conditions. In both scenarios, the recorded values were outside comfort ranges recommended by NBR 15575 and ASHRAE 55, which confirm that the construction system, in its original configuration, does not ensure adequate habitability conditions, reinforcing the need for mitigation measures such as thermal insulation, shading, and controlled natural ventilation.
Figure 7 shows the trend line for solar irradiance as a function of the external and internal temperatures of the container during the period from August 19th to 25th, 2025.
Trend line of solar irradiance as a function of external and internal container temperatures during the period from 19 to 25/08/2025.
The terms “air trend” and “container trend” correspond to the trend lines of the external air temperature and internal temperature of the container, respectively. This represents the average behavior and general direction of thermal variation over the analyzed period. The comparison between these trends enables us to identify the degree of thermal amplification imposed by the metal envelope and highlight the sensitivity of the container to variations in external climatic conditions.
Figure 7 shows the relationship between the average hourly global irradiance and external air and container temperatures from August 19 to 25, 2025. The trend lines indicate a strong correlation between irradiance and temperature, with R2 values of 0.72 and 0.77 for air and the container, respectively. The higher slope of the container line (0.071) compared to that of the air (0.061) indicates greater internal sensitivity to solar gain. Thus, for each 100 W m⁻2 increase in irradiance, the container temperature increases by ~7.1 °C, while the external air temperature increases by 6.1 °C. This result confirms the thermal amplification effect of the container and its greater vulnerability to overheating under high solar radiation conditions.
Table 3 presents the parameters of the linear regression equations between irradiance and temperature between August 19 and 25, 2025.
The slope represents the temperature change for each 100 W·m⁻2 increase in irradiance, and the coefficient of determination (R2) indicates the degree to which the linear model fits observed data. The slope obtained for the external air (0.061) indicates that, for every 100 W m2 increase in irradiance, the temperature increases by an average of 6.1 °C. In the container, the slope was 0.071, indicating that for the same increase in radiation, the internal temperature increases by ~7.1 °C. These results confirm that the container has a higher slope than the external air, demonstrating greater sensitivity of the internal environment to solar gain and confirming the thermal amplification effect provided by the metallic envelope; i.e., it intensifies external climatic variations instead of attenuating them.
The linear coefficient is ~9 °C for both variables, which represents the estimated temperature in the absence of irradiance, i.e., under night-time conditions. This value is consistent with the winter weather conditions in Cascavel, Paraná, reinforcing the consistency of the model. The R2 values between 0.72 (outside air) and 0.77 (container) indicate a strong correlation between solar irradiance and monitored temperatures. This result reinforces the direct effect of solar gain on internal heating, demonstrating that the thermal response of the container is strongly dependent on the variation in radiation throughout the day.
From a human perspective, such conditions pose a risk of discomfort from excessive heat and intense cold. On hot days, indoor temperatures above 40 °C expose occupants to heat stress, fatigue, and dehydration, which makes prolonged stays without air conditioning unfeasible. On cold days, the temperatures of 9–11 °C can generate severe discomfort, requiring additional clothing and artificial heating to make the use of the space viable.
These results confirmed that the container, in its standard configuration, exhibited significant thermal amplification on days with high irradiance and insufficient performance in cold and cloudy conditions. This behavior of overheating in the summer and overcooling in the winter has already been pointed out by Fariña et al. (2024) in their analysis on standardized containers. They concluded that, without design interventions, energy performance and thermal comfort were compromised, requiring insulation and ventilation to mitigate thermal variations. Similar results were observed by Figaj et al. (2024), who compared scenarios in 30 European locations using energy simulations. The authors highlighted that the local climate exerts a decisive effect on the performance of container homes and that the application of passive solutions can considerably reduce heat loss and gain. These results agree with the present study regarding differences between clear and cloudy days. Another critical factor is airtightness. Tanyer et al. (2018) experimentally evaluated container houses and showed that sealing failures increase leaks, reduce energy efficiency, and intensify internal thermal instability. This reinforces that construction details such as seals and thermal bridge breaks are as important as insulation.
In terms of passive mitigation strategies, this study reinforces the need for measures to control solar gain and thermal insulation. For example, Moura et al. (2024) demonstrated that the adoption of green roofs on containers substantially improves thermal performance, with substrate thickness being a critical factor affecting effectiveness. Other authors highlighted the relevance of reflective materials and thermal barriers that reduce the typical conductivity of steel, especially in regions of high solar radiation (Costa & Ribeiro, 2021; Oliveira & Mendes, 2021).
From a regulatory standpoint, the results of internal temperatures exceeding 40 °C on hot days and falling below 12 °C on cold days are inconsistent with comfort ranges established by NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2021) and ASHRAE 55 (ASHRAE, 2020). According to Santos & Almeida (2020), in low-cost housing, compliance with Brazilian bioclimatic zoning and adherence to regulatory parameters are essential for ensuring habitability.
Conclusions
The results of this study reveal that the unsatisfactory thermal performance of the container is directly associated with the characteristics of the metal envelope and high dependence on external climatic conditions, especially solar irradiance. On days of high radiation (August 21 and 22), the average internal temperature reached 27.22 °C, exceeding the upper limits of thermal comfort established by NBR 15575 (18–26 °C for bioclimatic zone 2) and ASHRAE 55 (typical operative comfort temperatures around 23–26 °C for sedentary occupancy in naturally conditioned environments; ASHRAE, 2020), with differences between internal and external temperatures varying between 2 and 3 °C. In contrast, on days of low irradiance (August 24 and 25), internal temperatures ranged between 10 and 11 °C, indicating underheating.
An analysis of standard deviations reinforced these findings: on days with the highest insolation (August 20 and 21), internal temperature ranges close to 10 °C were observed, indicating strong instability throughout the day, while on cold and cloudy days (August 24 and 25), the deviations were less than 2 °C, showing greater thermal stability at levels significantly below the comfort range. Linear regression results confirmed the direct effect of solar irradiance; for every 100 W m2 increase, the internal temperature increased by an average of 7.1 °C, which was a value higher than that observed for the external temperature (6.1 °C), highlighting the thermal amplification effect of the container. In this context, the mitigation strategies discussed in this study play a central role in enabling the residential use of this construction system. Passive measures such as the thermal insulation of the building envelope, use of reflective surfaces or green roofs, external shading, and controlled natural ventilation, are fundamental for mitigating overheating on days with high solar radiation and underheating during cold periods. This constitutes essential elements for improving the thermal comfort and energy efficiency of container homes in subtropical climates.
Although thermal comfort indices such as the PMV and PPD are widely used to assess human thermal comfort and have been mentioned as conceptual references in the introduction, they were not directly applied in this study. This decision stems from the absence of fundamental variables required by the models such as metabolic rate, clothing level, air velocity, and characterization of human occupancy because the container analyzed was not in permanent residential use during the monitoring period. Similarly, the data analysis focused on descriptive and correlational statistical approaches, which are suitable for diagnosing the thermal performance of the container and the direct effect of solar irradiance on internal and external temperatures. Advanced exploratory or predictive approaches including time series models or machine learning techniques were not adopted in this study because of the limited data collection period and experimental nature of the work.
However, such methodologies represent relevant perspectives for future studies, especially in scenarios with long-term monitoring and detailed characterization of occupancy, and they can contribute to predicting internal thermal behavior as a function of climatic and operational variables.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel - Brazil (CAPES) and the Postgraduate Program in Energy Engineering in Agriculture – PPGEA (area of concentration Agroenergy).
References
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Data Availability Statement:
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Funding:
This work was carried out with the support of the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel - Brazil (CAPES) - Financing Code 001.
Edited by
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Area Editor:
Héliton Pandorfi
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
