English Language Education in Mozambique: A Review of Policy, Practice, and Challenges

O Ensino da Língua Inglesa em Moçambique: Uma Revisão das Políticas, Práticas e Desafios

Abstract

This study explores the evolution of English Language Teaching (ELT) in Mozambique from 1975 to the present, focusing on policy changes, curriculum reforms, and pedagogical strategies. This research employed a historical qualitative approach, analysing pertinent documents to identify key milestones in the development of English language instruction. A notable event is the 1994 First National Conference on English Language Teaching, which solidified the significance of English within Mozambique’s educational system. The study highlights how, during the 1990s, English evolved from a marginal subject to a strategic priority, primarily influenced by regional integration and globalisation. Despite the significant challenges, such as a persistent shortage of qualified teachers and stark disparities in educational access between rural and urban areas, the importance of English has grown markedly across various sectors in Mozambique, including education, commerce, and diplomacy, where it is increasingly used in schools, business contexts, and regional or international engagements. These findings highlight the urgent need for educational policies that align closely with the realities experienced within classrooms and policy developments. There is a strong call for developing sustainable strategies to improve students’ proficiency in English, all while respecting and honouring the country’s rich multilingual context.

Keywords:
English language education ; ELT ; ELT policy ; Mozambique ; curriculum reform

Resumo

Este estudo explora a evolução do Ensino da Língua Inglesa (ELT) em Moçambique desde 1975 até o presente, com foco nas mudanças de políticas, reformas curriculares e estratégias pedagógicas. A pesquisa adotou uma abordagem qualitativa histórica, tendo analisado documentos pertinentes para identificar marcos importantes na evolução do ensino de inglês. Um evento notável foi a Primeira Conferência Nacional sobre o Ensino da Língua Inglesa, realizada em 1994, que consolidou a importância do inglês no sistema educacional moçambicano. O estudo destaca como, durante a década de 1990, o inglês passou de uma disciplina marginal para uma prioridade estratégica, principalmente devido à integração regional e à globalização. Apesar dos desafios significativos - como a escassez persistente de professores qualificados e as acentuadas disparidades no acesso à educação entre áreas rurais e urbanas - a importância do inglês cresceu consideravelmente em diversos setores em Moçambique, incluindo a educação, o comércio e a diplomacia, onde o inglês é cada vez mais utilizado nas escolas, contextos empresariais e em interações regionais ou internacionais. Os resultados ressaltam a necessidade urgente de políticas educacionais mais alinhadas com as realidades vivenciadas nas salas de aula. Há um forte apelo por estratégias sustentáveis para melhorar a proficiência em inglês dos alunos, respeitando e valorizando o rico contexto multilíngue do país.

Palavras-chave:
Ensino da língua inglesa ; ELT ; política de ensino de inglês ; Moçambique ; reforma curricular

1. Introduction

English has emerged as an essential global lingua franca, extensively taught and used in various educational settings worldwide. Its preeminence in international communication, academia, and commerce has led numerous countries to incorporate it into their educational frameworks, either as a subject or as a medium of instruction (McKinley & Rose, 2022; Crystal, 2003). This trend is particularly noticeable in sub-Saharan Africa, where both Anglophone and non-Anglophone nations recognise English as a vital tool for global engagement and socioeconomic progress (Bamgbose, 2000). Mozambique, a Lusophone country, officially introduced English into its education system in the early 1990s as part of broader reforms aimed at opening up to the global community and promoting regional integration within the Southern African Development Community (SADC) (Lopes, 2013).

The decision to incorporate English into the curriculum was influenced by Mozambique’s relationships with English-speaking nations and the need to engage more fully in the global economy. Since its introduction into the national education system (SNE), English language education in Mozambique has experienced considerable transformations, from the time when the country achieved independence from Portuguese colonial rule in 1975, influenced by educational policy shifts, curriculum reforms, and socio-political dynamics. Portuguese was the only official language in the early years following independence, reflecting the colonial legacy and the predominant culture (Chimbutane, 2011). However, as Mozambique navigated its newfound sovereignty, introducing English as a foreign language (EFL) became increasingly necessary, primarily driven by the country’s geopolitical alliances and economic aspirations.

As a result, English has taken on a vital role in various sectors, from education and business to diplomacy and technology, shaping the linguistic landscape of Mozambique and its integration into the international community. The evolution of English Language Teaching (ELT) policies reflects the dynamic interplay of local needs and global influences, aiming to foster a more linguistically diverse and economically robust society.

In this study, we conducted a structured bibliographical search across several academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, African Journals Online (AJOL), and Mozambican university repositories. While there are numerous studies on English language education in Mozambique, focusing on pedagogy, teacher education, learner motivation, and challenges in classroom implementation (Mawere, 2012; Nhapulo, 2013; Goncalves & Chauma, 2020; Vinte & Çavusoglu, 2024), there remains a gap in the literature regarding the historical trajectory of English language education in the country. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, no comprehensive research has been conducted to map the evolution of English as a school subject and its changing role in Mozambique’s educational landscape.

In an attempt to examine English’s historical and contemporary presence in Mozambique, Henriksen (2025) explored how the language has evolved from a minor foreign language to a growing communication tool in education, commerce, and diplomacy. According to Henriksen, this rise is linked to regional alliances (e.g., SADC), international aid, and global economic participation. The author further observes that English is increasingly used in urban areas, particularly among younger and educated populations, although Portuguese remains the dominant language nationwide. Henriksen’s analysis, however, does not focus on the historical evolution of the ELT policy itself, leaving a gap for further historical inquiry into policy development and implementation.

Research on Mozambique’s language education policies has primarily focused on Portuguese and bilingual education, with relatively less attention given to English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Scholars such as Lopes (1998), Mkuti (1999), Chimbutane (2011), and Mawere (2013) have contributed valuable insights; however, their work often neglects the complex dimensions of EFL within the broader educational framework. Notably, there is a significant gap in studies that systematically examine the historical development of English language education in Mozambique, especially regarding institutional reforms and key curriculum changes that arose after the 1990s. This period is particularly relevant as it coincides with the end of the country’s 16-year civil war, constitutional reforms, and its integration into the Southern African Development Community (SADC).

Most existing studies address general language policy issues in the context of bilingual education, without examining the specific developments that have shaped English language education in Mozambique, such as curriculum reforms, teacher training initiatives, and resource constraints in schools. This limited attention to the ELT policy has left gaps in our understanding of how English instruction has evolved within the National Education System (Sistema Nacional de Educação - SNE) and how policy decisions have impacted classroom practice.

This study seeks to address the gaps in the field by examining the historical development of English language education in Mozambique from its inception to the present day. Through an in-depth analysis of educational policies, the research aims to shed light on the different stages of evolution of both the ELT policy and instruction in Mozambique. By tracing the development of ELT practices and policies, curriculum transformations, and the sociolinguistic environment influencing these changes, the study provides a clearer understanding of how English has evolved within the Mozambican educational context.

2. Existing Literature in ELT Policy

The existing literature on ELT policy covers a broad range of topics, reflecting the global significance of English and the diverse contexts in which it is taught. Key focus areas include national policies (Chimbutane, 2011; Firmino, 2002; Chimbutane, 2022), the impact of globalisation (Yu, 2023; Henriksen, 2025), curriculum development (Lyu et al., 2024; Hult, 2018; Arias & Wiley, 2013), and the integration of technology and other innovative approaches (Ammade et al., 2018; Tabasi et al., 2024; Merta et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024; Jamalova, 2024).

The current body of literature concerning English language education in Mozambique is notably limited and fragmented. A comprehensive review of literature sourced from databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, and national university repositories reveals that the majority of existing studies predominantly focus on pedagogical practices, teacher training, and the challenges encountered within the classroom context (e.g., Mawere, 2012; Nhapulo, 2013; Gonçalves & Chaúma, 2020; Vinte & Çavusoglu, 2024).

Nonetheless, there has been a lack of sufficient attention to the historical and policy dimensions of ELT, particularly regarding how institutional and curricular reforms have influenced its development since independence. This gap in longitudinal and policy-focused research undermines our understanding of how ELT has evolved alongside Mozambique’s broader educational and socio-economic changes. Therefore, the current review seeks to contextualise ELT within the country’s historical and policy frameworks, illuminating these often-overlooked dynamics.

The only research related to Mozambique’s ELT Policy is Mkuti’s (1999) article on the role of English in Mozambican Education. In this article, Mkuti portrays the introductory part of the national ELT policy to justify the pertinence of providing English language instruction in Mozambique (p. 46).

Previous studies by Lopes (1998), Firmino (2002), Chimbutane (2011), and Chimbutane (2022) have provided important insights into Mozambique’s overarching language policy, specifically concerning multilingualism, bilingual education, and the socio-political significance of Portuguese. However, these works only marginally address the role of English within national language debates, treating it as a relatively minor component amid broader discussions of linguistic hierarchy and policy implementation. This limited focus emphasises how general language policy research has often overshadowed ELT policy, rather than exploring it as a distinct area of inquiry.

In other contexts, several studies examine the official policies of English language education in specific countries, offering valuable comparative insights for understanding Mozambique’s situation. For example, a study by Mirhosseini and Haghi (2023) investigates national policy documents in Iran to portray the official ELT policies, adopting a policy as a discourse approach. This investigation involves analysing the documents’ manifest statements and conceptual categories to understand the educational policy directions. Similarly, another paper analysed ELT policy in Japan as an example of contemporary education policy to illustrate the influence of globalisation in the education field within a country (Ma et al., 2024).

The influence of globalisation on ELT policies has become a prominent topic of discussion in academic literature. In a study by Yu (2023), the Japanese ELT policy was used as an example to critically analyse how globalisation has influenced the development of current education policy. They concluded that education policies must adapt and evolve as nations seek to enhance their competitiveness in the ever-evolving global job market. This transformation often necessitates a heightened focus on English language proficiency, recognising it as a key skill for success. Such adjustments are essential for cultivating a workforce capable of thriving in an interconnected world.

Moreover, using technology in ELT is another prominent trend in the ELT policy literature. Integrating technology into ELT policy is multifaceted, encompassing global experiences, implementation strategies, challenges, and potential impacts on educational outcomes of using instructional technology in English language instruction (Ammade et al., 2018; Tabasi et al., 2024; Merta et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024; Jamalova, 2024). Literature suggests reforms in ELT policy to accommodate technology integration into ELT policy due to the recognition that technology can enhance teaching and learning, improve student engagement, foster critical thinking skills, and enhance student engagement and motivation by making learning more interactive and personalised.

Furthermore, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly playing a transformative role in ELT policy. For example, Darmawansah et al. (2024) analysed how ChatGPT-supported collaborative argumentation can enhance EFL students’ argumentation skills, balancing bilingual education with English-only policies in Indonesia. In a similar study, Hwang et al. (2024) explored the integration of AI chatbots into the metaverse to provide immersive language learning experiences.

However, successfully integrating technology into English language instruction is not straightforward. It demands a thoughtful and comprehensive approach that considers several critical factors. Key among these is the importance of teacher training, which equips educators with the necessary skills and knowledge to use technological tools in their classrooms effectively (Lyu et al., 2024). Teachers act as policy agents, interpreting legislation and directives to inform their curricular decisions. They engage with curricular policy by leveraging their training and experience to critically assess its implications and the conditions and constraints it presents for developing lessons that meet their students' needs (Hult, 2018; Arias & Wiley, 2013).

Additionally, the development of robust infrastructure is essential to support the technological needs of both teachers and students, ensuring they have reliable access to the resources required for effective learning. Lastly, alignment with educational policies is crucial, as it creates a supportive framework that fosters the seamless incorporation of technology into the teaching and learning process, ultimately enhancing the overall educational experience. (Alghamdi & Holland, 2020; Lyu et al., 2024).

In her review of Amy Tsui’s book, Fang (2021) calls upon teacher educators, researchers, ELT practitioners, and national language policymakers to reassess the complexities surrounding ELT and ELTE (English Language Teacher Education). She emphasises the importance of focusing on specific contexts to deepen our understanding of the global challenges and local responses inherent in ELT and ELTE. The need to analyse context and develop programmes that thoroughly address the intricate socioeconomic and linguistic needs at the local level is further supported by Solly (2013) for developing more realistic, long-term, and tailored planning and evaluation in ELT change projects.

Moreover, Ahmad and Khan (2011) studied policy awareness among educational stakeholders in Pakistan, particularly those teachers responsible for implementing the policies, emphasising the significance of language policy awareness in ELTE. They suggested that a lack of language policy awareness can create gaps in integrating language teaching as an aligned education component. This integration problem highlights the importance of equipping teachers with the knowledge and skills necessary to implement language policies effectively in the classroom.

The existing literature on ELT policy in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) reveals a complex and dynamic landscape shaped by colonial legacies, socio-political transitions, and economic imperatives. Across the region, English has often been positioned simultaneously as a unifying regional lingua franca and as a marker of social mobility, particularly in post-colonial education systems (Clegg & Simpson, 2018; Angrist, 2018). Policy approaches across SSA commonly emphasise English as the language of wider communication and a medium of instruction, reflecting efforts to integrate into global knowledge economies while also confronting challenges of linguistic inequality and limited teacher preparedness. For instance, in many SSA countries, national education policies promote English proficiency as essential for socioeconomic development, yet implementation remains uneven due to multilingual realities and resource constraints (Bamgbose, 2000; Clegg, 2007).

Situating the Mozambican case within this regional policy landscape helps clarify how broader SSA dynamics, particularly the tension between English expansion and local language maintenance, inform the evolution of English language education policy in Mozambique.

3. Methodology

This article adopted a qualitative historical research design, aiming to track the development of English language education in Mozambique from its introduction to the present day. Historical research is a systematic and interpretive method of inquiry used to collect, evaluate, and synthesise evidence from the past, primarily of a qualitative nature, in order to explain, contextualise, and construct meaning about historical events and processes (Thies, 2002; Lundy, 2008; Mohajan, 2018). Within the context of educational policy, the historical research design, involves a systematic investigation of past events to interpret their influence on present educational practices and policies (Kaplan, 2023). In language teaching, historical research often employs qualitative methods to analyse documents, archives, and oral histories (Nimehchisalem, 2018). This approach helps researchers understand the contexts in which specific teaching methods or policies emerged and evolved. This type of research design relies on primary and secondary sources to analyse historical contexts comprehensively.

Primary sources such as official government documents, national education policy papers, curriculum frameworks, and publications from the Ministry of Education and the National Institute for Educational Development (INDE) were consulted to gather data for this research. Additionally, the study examined curriculum frameworks from various educational reforms implemented over the years, providing insights into the evolution of educational directives in Mozambique. The table below illustrates the sources consulted as well as their purpose.

Table 1
List of primary sources

Source Category	Type of Document/Publication	Years Covered	Relevance/Purpose
Official documents	Ministry of Education policy papers	1975-2023	Track national education systems, teacher education and ELT policy development; official directives on language teaching
	Curriculum frameworks from primary and secondary education	1980-2023	Identify changes in ELT curricula across successive reforms
	National strategic plans and reports from INDE	1990-2022	Provide context for educational priorities, teacher training, and language policy.

On the other hand, academic articles, dissertations, and books focusing on language policy and ELT/EFL were also integral to this research as secondary sources. These sources contributed scholarly perspectives on the intersection of language and education, highlighting challenges and advancements in English language instruction. Moreover, reports from reputable international organisations such as UNESCO offered valuable contextual information and analysis regarding the state of education in Mozambique, particularly concerning global trends and standards, as illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2
List of secondary sources

Source Category	Type of Document/Publication	Years Covered	Relevance/Purpose
Academic publications	Peer-reviewed articles on Mozambican ELT	1975 - 2025	Track national education systems, teacher education and ELT policy development;
	Peer-reviewed articles on ELT/EFL/ESL, ELT and language policy	2000 -2025	• Provide scholarly analysis of policy implementation, curriculum design, and pedagogical challenges; • Help contextualise Mozambique’s ELT evolution within regional and global trends; • Support historical interpretation of how policies affected classroom practice and learner outcomes.
	Books and dissertations on bilingualism and language policy	1985 -2024	• Provide in-depth historical and theoretical perspectives on language planning, bilingual education, and ELT policies; • Offer comparative insights from other contexts that help interpret the evolution of English language education in Mozambique; • Support understanding of broader socio-political and educational factors affecting ELT.
	Conference proceedings related to ELT reforms in Mozambique	1990 - 2023	• Document recent debates, innovations, and expert perspectives on ELT policy and reforms; • Provide up-to-date information on implementation challenges, successes, and lessons learned; • Supplement historical sources with contemporary insights

The extensive data gathered were systematically analysed using thematic analysis, which involved highlighting, examining, and recording categories, patterns, or themes within the data. This method generally facilitated the identification of key trends and patterns in the development of English language education throughout different historical periods, allowing for a nuanced understanding of how educational policies and practices have evolved in response to local needs and international influences. Overall, this comprehensive approach thoroughly examined the complex landscape of English language education in Mozambique.

Data Collection Procedures

Data for this study were collected through a comprehensive documentary analysis centered on sources pertinent to English language education and policy in Mozambique. This methodological approach integrated international academic databases, national repositories, and official institutional archives to ensure a robust and diverse range of information.

We conducted a comprehensive search across multiple databases, such as Scopus, Web of Science, African Journals Online (AJOL), ERIC, JSTOR, and Google Scholar, using keywords such as “English language education in Mozambique ”, or “English language teaching policy ”, or “language policy and planning .” However, this search found very few relevant studies indexed in Scopus or Web of Science, reflecting the limited international visibility of Mozambican scholarship on this topic.

Consequently, most of the relevant literature was retrieved from national repositories, particularly the Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (UEM) repository (http://www.repositorio.uem.mz/), which hosted the majority of theses, dissertations, and academic papers addressing English language teaching and policy. Additional data were obtained from publications by the Ministry of Education and Human Development (MINEDH) and the National Institute for Educational Development (INDE).

The search covered literature from the post-independence period (1975-2025) and was conducted between October 2024 and March 2025. The process followed a systematic, iterative approach to ensure the inclusion of both academic and institutional perspectives relevant to Mozambique’s ELT history.

The inclusion process focused on documents that directly pertained to the teaching, learning, and policy aspects of English language education in Mozambique, published between 1975 and 2025 in either English or Portuguese. These dates allowed us trace historical background of ELT policies since independence. The materials selected were sourced from peer-reviewed journals, university theses, government policy papers, and institutional archives that provided pertinent historical or policy insights. Sources were excluded if they concentrated solely on general education policy without specific references to English, discussed English education in other African contexts without incorporating a Mozambican perspective, or lacked adequate methodological or contextual detail. To ensure analytical rigour and clarity, duplicate records and inaccessible full texts were also discarded.

4. Main Findings

This section aims to highlight the key findings from our research on language education within the Mozambican education system, specifically emphasising the aspects of English Language Teaching (ELT). We will explore various factors influencing the different stages and changes in curriculum and ELT policy. Through this examination, we seek to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of ELT in Mozambique and its implications for future improvements in language education.

Language Education in Post-Independence Period (1975 - 1992)

During the colonial period, several foreign languages, such as English, French, Greek, German, Italian, and Latin, were taught in schools for Portuguese children (Mkuti, 1999). These languages were deemed essential for their upbringing in a colonial context, equipping them with skills for a world dominated by European powers. In stark contrast, Mozambican children were excluded from this linguistic education, reflecting a broader pattern of inequality that denied them access to the same resources and opportunities for learning. This disparity illustrates the significant educational divide during this era, reinforcing the socio-cultural gaps between the Portuguese and the local population.

Following its independence in 1975, Mozambique faced the challenge of constructing a national identity and unifying a linguistically diverse population (Lopes, 1998). Portuguese, inherited from the colonial era, was maintained as the official language and the primary language of instruction in education, mainly due to its unifying role and the lack of a dominant national Bantu language (Mkuti, 1999). However, this decision marginalised the numerous Bantu languages spoken nationwide (Lopes, 1998). The local languages were mainly overlooked and experienced significant marginalisation in this diverse linguistic framework.

Consequently, English, a language that had the potential to function as a crucial instrument for fostering international communication and global connectivity, was relegated to a secondary role within the educational framework. It was predominantly taught in a few prestigious institutions, which catered exclusively to an elite audience (Mkuti, 1999), focusing on preparing individuals for diplomacy and international relations careers. This selective approach to English language education emphasised the greater class divisions present in society. It also ensured that only a privileged few could access English instruction, and the myriad opportunities it might bring reinforced the prevailing social hierarchies and disparities that permeated the country (Lopes, 1998).

Early language policies, as explored by Mkuti (1999), Lopes (1998), and Chimbutane (2011, 2018), reveal a significant tension: the dedication to promoting national unity through the use of Portuguese alongside the recognition of the essential role played by national Bantu languages. While there was some acknowledgment of the necessity for bilingual education - defined as the incorporation of both Portuguese and national languages in early primary schooling - Portuguese remained the primary focus (Chimbutane, 2018). Although not officially prioritised, English gradually increased in significance due to globalisation and the need for engagement with the international community.

Its distinct linguistic and cultural landscape, aligned with the country’s geopolitical situation and commercial interests, largely influenced the drive for Mozambique’s regional integration. As a Portuguese-speaking country, Mozambique is surrounded by a network of English-speaking nations, including South Africa, Eswatini, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, and Tanzania. This linguistic divide highlights the necessity of fostering collaboration and unity among the Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, most of which predominantly communicate in English. This situation highlights the importance of strengthening Mozambique’s relationships with its neighbours and illustrates the potential for enhanced regional communication and cooperation.

English Language in Mozambique’s Education System (1993 - present)

The educational framework in Mozambique experienced a profound shift with the onset of economic liberalisation and the nation’s formal entrance into the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in 1992, following the approval of Law 6/92 enacted on 23 March (the National Education System - SNE). This historical move established English as a mandatory subject in secondary schools, a decision that emphasised the language’s essential role in enhancing regional integration and facilitating communication across borders. The curriculum reform undertaken in the same year significantly emphasised English, recognising it as a vital foreign language necessary for students to navigate an increasingly interconnected world (INDE/MINEDH, 2003).

However, the transition to this new educational paradigm had its obstacles. There were significant gaps in the training of teachers, many of whom were not fully equipped to teach English as a second or foreign language effectively. Additionally, suitable teaching materials were scarce, presenting further challenges in delivering a high-quality education. This combination of inadequate teacher preparation and limited resources hindered the ability of students to fully engage with and master the English language, which was meant to open doors to greater opportunities and regional cooperation in the context of SADC (Mkuti, 1999).

According to Chimbuitane (2011), the English language was introduced into the Mozambican education system in 1993, following the end of the civil war, as part of the government’s efforts to integrate the country into global economic and political systems. The decision to incorporate English into the curriculum was also influenced by Mozambique’s membership in the Commonwealth of Nations in 1995 and the growing significance of English as a global lingua franca (Lopes, 2004).

Due to the limited availability of resources and educational materials for ELT, Mkuti (1999) notes that the then Ministry of Education and Culture established the Instituto de Desenvolvimento da Educação (INDE), or the National Institute for Educational Development. This initiative was designed to address the critical need for quality educational resources. INDE was entrusted with the vital responsibility of developing and producing textbooks specifically for schools, ensuring both teachers and students have access to the essential tools required for effective learning.

Initially, English was taught exclusively in secondary schools, typically starting in Grade 8. However, in the early 2000s, as globalisation discourses increasingly framed English as a key vehicle for scientific, economic, and technological advancement, the Ministry of Education launched a series of curriculum reforms in 2004 (INDE/MINEDH, 2003), but these were effectively implemented by 2006. These reforms reflected an institutional recognition, rooted partly in international development narratives, of the growing prominence of English as a global language, even though this assumption remains open to critical scrutiny within local sociolinguistic realities.

Concerning the English language, these curriculum reforms resulted in English instruction being officially introduced in primary education starting from Grade 6, marking a pivotal shift in how the language was integrated into the education system. This proactive approach aimed to enhance communication to “develop the learners’ basic vocabulary for communication” (INDE/MINEDH, 2003, p. 33).

Nonetheless, the latest reform in the education sector has led to significant developments with the approval of the National Education System (SNE), formalised through Law 18/2018, enacted on 28 December. This landmark legislation marks a new era in educational standards, particularly regarding English language instruction. Under this new framework, English language education is now mandated for all students in secondary schools, beginning from the 7^th grade and extending through the 12^th grade (MINEDH, 2022). This requirement aims to equip students with a robust foundation in English, which is increasingly recognised as a critical skill in the global economy.

According to MINEDH (2022), by incorporating English as a core subject from grade 7, the initiative seeks to enhance students’ proficiency and fluency, better preparing them for countless academic and professional opportunities requiring effective English communication. This shift aligns with international educational standards and prepares young learners to compete in a diverse and interconnected world, ensuring they are better positioned for higher education and career advancement.

Therefore, the historical evolution and evolving role of English language education within Mozambique’s education system can be summarised in three phases of transformation. English was first introduced in 1993 as a strategic initiative to integrate the country into global political and economic contexts, including Mozambique’s membership in the Commonwealth in 1995. Initially, English instruction was limited to secondary education, beginning in Grade 8. However, educational reforms initiated in 2004 and implemented by 2006 expanded English teaching to include Grade 6. Finally, the most recent educational reform has again adjusted the English instruction framework, restricting it to secondary education starting in Grade 7. This shift reflects a renewed emphasis on strengthening English language skills during the later and more critical academic years, aiming to better equip students for success in both academic and professional pursuits.

English Language Teacher Education (ELTE)

The training of teachers for primary education in Mozambique has undergone constant change, from the names of the institutions to the training models themselves. Several training models have characterised these changes since independence (1975) up to the introduction of the Primary Teacher Training Institutes (Instituto do Magistério Primário -IMAP) (Nicaquela & Assane, 2020; Niquice, 2005).

Immediately after independence, teacher training was characterised by short-term and accelerated programmes, with durations ranging from 1 to 10 months or up to 1 year. The first structured training model was introduced in 1982 (the 6^th grade + 1 year’s model). In 1983, the 6^th grade + 3 years’ model was introduced, followed by the 7^th grade + 3 years’ model in 1991. However, it was in 1996 that the IMAPs were introduced, with the initial training model being 10^th grade + 2 years (Niquice, 2005; Assane, 2017). In the context of these educational programmes, the initial descriptor (e.g., 6^th, 7^th, or 10^th grade) indicates the minimum level of formal education necessary for eligibility, while the subsequent descriptor denotes the length of the teacher training component.

To address the urgent need to stop hiring teachers without psycho-pedagogical training, accelerated teacher training programmes were introduced in transitional formats. One such model was 10^th grade + 1 year, structured so that initial training could be completed in 12 months, allowing teachers to begin teaching quickly (Niquice, 2005). As a result, Teacher Training Institutes (IFPs - Instituto de Formacão de Professores) were created to offer comprehensive training for primary school teachers and adult educators (INDE/MINEDH, 2003). These IFPs initially trained teachers under the 10^th grade + 1-year model and later introduced the 12^th grade + 1-year model, which had previously been implemented and discontinued by the then Pedagogical University of Mozambique.

In the IMAPs, which later became IFPs, the courses followed five areas of specialisation for teacher training: the first one for training primary school teachers in general subjects (Communication and Expression and Mathematics and Technology); the second for Physical Education; the third for Visual and Technological Education; the fourth for Musical Education; and the fifth one for English language teachers. All graduates of these courses were qualified to work in primary schools (grades 1 to 7).

Up to this point, the general education subsystem was divided into primary education, comprising seven grades (from 1^st to 7^th), and secondary education, comprising five grades (from 8^th to 12^th). Primary education constituted the country’s basic education. Teachers trained by the IMAPs and IFPs were designated exclusively for teaching at the primary level, up to the 7^th grade. Secondary school teachers, on the other hand, were and continue to be trained at the undergraduate level by higher education institutions.

However, with the most recent reform in the education sector, which led to the approval of a new National Education System (SNE) (Law 18/2018 of 28 December), the general education subsystem was restructured, and the 7^th grade was moved to secondary education. Thus, primary education now comprises six grades (1^st to 6^th), and secondary education also comprises six grades, from the 7^th to 12^th (MINEDH, 2020).

Primary education serves as the foundation of a country's educational system. At this level, a single teacher typically instructs all subjects, including Portuguese, Mathematics, and Natural Sciences, to younger children. Teachers at this stage are specifically trained the IFPs, dedicating their expertise solely to primary education.

In contrast, secondary education caters to older students, encompassing adolescents and young adults. Here, each teacher specialises in a particular subject, such as Portuguese, Mathematics, Biology, English, or Physics. Universities offer teacher preparation programmes focused on these specialised secondary subjects, equipping educators with both subject-specific knowledge and pedagogical methods appropriate for older learners. These differences underscore the need for varied instructional approaches at the primary and secondary levels, reflecting the distinct developmental and educational needs of their respective student populations.

Among the various changes resulting from this restructuring, the following are highlighted:

(i) English is now taught only in secondary education, starting from 7^th grade;

(ii) The IFPs stopped training English language teachers;

(iii) The teacher training models 10^th grade + 1 year and 12^th grade + 1 year were abolished, and the IFPs now exclusively offer the 12^th grade + 3 years model;

(iv) Basic education now comprises nine grades (from 1^st to 9^th grade).

Studies have highlighted significant challenges in Mozambique’s English language educational landscape, particularly concerning the provision of qualified and skilled English language teachers. Researchers such as Mawere (2012) and Nhapulo (2013) emphasise the negative impact of the reduced number of trained teachers and the lack of adequate learning resources, compounded by overcrowded classrooms, which have been identified as critical impediments to effective English language instruction. Addressing these issues is essential for enhancing educational outcomes in this domain.

The English Language Teaching Policy

One of the most pivotal initiatives aimed at enhancing the English language within Mozambique’s education system was the first National Conference on English Language Teaching, which took place in 1994. This conference gathered educators, policymakers, and linguists to discuss the challenges and opportunities surrounding English language instruction in the country. A significant achievement from this gathering was developing and presenting a comprehensive proposal for the framework and methodology of English language teaching. After thorough discussions and deliberations, this proposal garnered the approval of the Ministry of Education in 1995, marking a crucial step towards integrating English more effectively into the national curriculum. The outcomes of this conference represented a commitment to improving educational standards and equipping students with essential language skills vital for global communication and work opportunities. (Eduardo & Uprichard, 1995).

The following excerpt outlines the official position of the Mozambican Ministry of Education concerning the teaching of English. It highlights the importance of English in education and national development. The extract encapsulates key policy objectives aimed at enhancing students’ proficiency in English, thereby providing them with essential language skills for effective global communication and future employment opportunities.

Extract 1:

Extract from the English Language Teaching Policy ( Eduardo & Uprichard, 1995 , p. 13)

1.1 English has a part to play in contributing to economic growth and poverty reduction in Mozambique

1.2 It can assist the transition from a command economy to a market economy

1.3 A command of English will help medium and high-level manpower promote and manage economic growth and poverty reduction measures and programmes

1.4 English is of particular relevance in the following major areas:

• Commerce and Trade

• Accessing Aid

• Regional and International Relationships

• Higher Education and Research

• Information Technology

• Skills and Technology Transfer

• Tourism

This section positions English as an essential instrument for the socioeconomic development of Mozambique, emphasising the connection between language proficiency and factors such as economic growth, poverty reduction, and the shift from a command economy to a market-oriented one. The policy underscores the significance of English in various domains, including commerce, access to aid, regional and international relations, higher education, information technology, skills transfer, and tourism.

Implicit in this perspective is the belief that proficiency in English plays a direct role in advancing national development, reflecting a globalisation-centric viewpoint. While the policy prioritises the use of English in the medium and high-level workforce, it raises pertinent questions about the equitable distribution of access to English education, particularly in rural or under-resourced areas. This highlights the need to critically examine the potential disparity between policy intentions and practical implementation, especially concerning the inclusion of marginalised populations.

Furthermore, below is an excerpt from the ELT policy that outlines the measures aimed at integrating and expanding English language instruction within Mozambican schools. This reflects the Ministry of Education’s goals to increase students' exposure to English, standardise teaching methods, and ensure that learners develop functional language skills throughout their primary and secondary education.

Extract 2:

Extract from the English Language Teaching Policy ( Eduardo & Uprichard, 1995 , p. 14)

English in Schools

3.1 As a priority, English should be taught to all students in secondary and technical schools.

3.2 To maximise resources, Lower Secondary and Basic Technical Schools should adopt a standard syllabus and system of assessment for Basic General English.

3.3 At Upper Secondary and Middle Technical Schools, a degree of linguistic specialisation may be introduced to respond to the diversity of demand from tertiary institutions and employers.

3.4 A sufficient and appropriate supply of textbooks and supplementary materials will be necessary to ensure efficient ELT (English Language Teaching) delivery at this level.

3.5 Resource materials for the teaching and learning of English and teacher education should be made accessible to teachers through the development of a network of resource centres throughout the provinces.

3.6 In-Service Training (INSET) is considered a significant factor in raising and maintaining the quality of ELT delivery in this sector. It should be regionalised to minimise the absence of teachers from their posts.

This extract outlines the Ministry’s strategy for integrating English instruction throughout secondary and technical schools. It emphasises a standardised syllabus and assessment for lower secondary schools, while accommodating linguistic specialisation in upper secondary and middle technical schools to cater to the diverse requirements of tertiary institutions and employers. The policy also underlines the importance of textbooks, supplementary materials, resource centres, and regionally focused in-service training (INSET) for teachers.

From a critical perspective, while these initiatives reflect a commitment to ensuring quality ELT, they presuppose that providing resources and training alone will ensure effective English acquisition. Nevertheless, the policy falls short of addressing challenges such as regional disparities, teacher shortages, and socio-economic barriers that may impede equitable access to English language education.

The following extract highlights policy directives concerning teacher education and professional development in ELT. It underscores the Ministry’s acknowledgement of the necessity to train and support qualified English teachers, emphasising the importance of continuous professional development and the enhancement of pedagogical practices to improve English language teaching outcomes across the nation.

Extract 3:

Extract from the English Language Teaching Policy ( Eduardo & Uprichard, 1995 , p. 15)

Teacher Education and Development

4.1 To develop a sustainable capacity to deliver ELT at all levels and in all sectors, initial teacher training programmes must be strengthened and intensified.

4.2 Strategies should be elaborated to enable teacher training institutions to respond flexibly to the Ministry's requirements for trained teachers on a sustainable basis.

4.3 Appropriate courses should be introduced to meet the immediate and medium-term demands for trained teachers in schools and other institutions. The needs of private, non-formal, and higher-level institutions for appropriately trained teachers should also be considered.

4.4 To carry out the desired teacher training programmes, measures should be taken to ensure an adequate supply of qualified and experienced teacher educators.

4.5 In the longer term, decentralisation of initial training programmes should be encouraged.

4.6 Strategies should be developed to link initial and in-service teacher training on a sustainable basis.

This section emphasises the development of sustainable capacity for ELT through both initial and ongoing teacher training. It prioritises the enhancement of programmes, the qualification of teacher educators, and the decentralisation of training to increase accessibility. The policy also acknowledges the specific needs of private, non-formal, and higher education institutions.

Importantly, while the strategies demonstrate a long-term vision for the professionalisation of ELT, they operate under the assumption that adequate training frameworks and curriculum design alone are sufficient to fulfil national requirements. However, the extract fails to address systemic challenges, such as limited infrastructure, socio-economic disparities among trainees, and the retention of trained teachers in under-resourced areas, thus indicating potential obstacles to effective policy implementation.

Finally, Extract 4 presents policy guidance concerning English language education within Mozambique's higher education system. It reflects the Ministry's strategy to equip students for advanced academic and professional environments, underscoring the role of universities in cultivating specialised English language competencies and enhancing subject-specific expertise in tertiary-level programs.

Extract 4:

Extract from the English Language Teaching Policy ( Eduardo & Uprichard, 1995 , p. 16)

Higher Education

5.1 The University is the major source of higher-level manpower for which a command of English is considered essential, as most reference material is in English. ELT is therefore a priority at the university level.

5.2 To respond to this need, the capacity of tertiary institutions to deliver quality ELT on a sustainable basis should be developed.

5.3 An appropriate management structure for ELT within tertiary institutions should be developed, along with a sufficient supply of trained staff and adequate resources in key sites.

5.4 As capacity increases, graduate and post-graduate level courses in English-either alone or combined with other key subjects-could be introduced in the longer term.

5.5 In the medium to longer term, similar-level courses in TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) could also be introduced.

This section focuses on the role of universities in providing higher-level education where English proficiency is essential due to the predominance of English reference materials. It stresses the need to develop sustainable ELT capacity in tertiary institutions, including appropriate management structures, trained staff, and adequate resources. The long-term goals include introducing graduate and post-graduate courses in English, either standalone or combined with other subjects and eventually offering similar advanced courses in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). The policy emphasises ELT as a priority to meet the demands for a skilled workforce in higher education.

The policy connects ELT to national development goals, emphasising its significance for curriculum design and the preparation of both learners and teachers to address the specific needs of education, commerce, and technology sectors. This perspective underscores the practical role of ELT in advancing Mozambique’s strategic objectives, without reiterating earlier general statements about economic growth or workforce empowerment. It presents a comprehensive framework aimed at effectively integrating English Language Teaching (ELT) across various educational tiers:

a) Schools (Secondary & Technical): The policy proposes a cohesive curriculum that emphasises foundational English skills for all students, alongside specialised linguistic training for those pursuing advanced studies. This approach can be complemented by an array of resources and ongoing professional development opportunities for teachers, known as in-service training (INSET), to ensure high-quality instruction.

b) Teacher Education: the policy also focuses on enhancing pre-service and in-service training programmes for teachers. This training includes rigorous standards to ensure teachers are well-qualified and equipped with the necessary skills. Additionally, the policy advocates for decentralising these training programs, promoting accessibility and sustainability over the long term.

c) Higher Education: At the university level, the policy emphasises the importance of English proficiency as a critical component of academic success. It aims to strengthen the institutional capacity for delivering English language education and expand access to advanced English and TEFL programmes. This expansion is designed to respond to the evolving demands of the labour market, equipping graduates with the linguistic skills required for professional success.

The outlined measures are designed to establish a unified and sustainable ELT framework closely aligned with Mozambique’s development objectives. This comprehensive approach seeks to enhance the quality of education and promote long-term growth in the country, ensuring that the framework meets current educational needs and supports future advancements in language proficiency and communication skills.

5. Discussing the Findings

The current trajectory of English language education in Mozambique reflects significant efforts to align with global linguistic trends. However, this endeavour simultaneously reveals a complex array of contradictions and gaps that require careful examination. Many factors highlight the urgent need for a comprehensive review and reform of ELT policies to ensure their continued relevance to the country’s dynamic educational landscape and socio-political context.

Firstly, the inconsistency in implementing the ELT policy is exemplified by the transition of English language instruction from Grade 8 to Grade 6 and, most recently, to Grade 7. Initially introduced as a subject within secondary education, English language instruction was integrated into the curriculum at Grade 6 following educational reforms initiated in 2004, which were fully operational by 2006. This change aimed to enhance students’ exposure to the language, which was justified by the increasing importance of English in global communication. Nonetheless, the recent implementation of the National Education System (Law 18/2018) has repositioned English instruction to commence in Grade 7. This shift contradicts contemporary best practices, which advocate for the early introduction of foreign languages within educational curricula to optimise language acquisition outcomes (Malyk, 2024; Shishova, 2020).

Secondly, Mozambique’s classification as a non-English-speaking country bolsters the argument for the earlier introduction of English within the educational trajectory. While research indicates that language learning remains possible at older ages, evidence also suggests that younger learners benefit from greater cognitive flexibility and neuroplasticity, which can facilitate language acquisition (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). Consequently, policies that delay English instruction to later grades may undermine these developmental advantages, potentially limiting students’ long-term proficiency. Although later learning is not inherently inefficient, postponing early exposure risks constraining the cumulative learning trajectory and reducing the time available for practice and reinforcement during critical formative years (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Hartshorne et al., 2018).

Initiating English instruction during the early years of schooling would engender familiarity and enhance long-term proficiency and communicative competence. This notion aligns with Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, which emphasises the significance of meaningful linguistic exposure during critical developmental periods (Krashen, 1982; Hartshorne et al., 2018). Consequently, the current policy of delaying the introduction of English instruction until Grade 7 may inadvertently restrict learners’ capacity to acquire functional English skills at an optimal stage.

Thirdly, despite introducing English into the national curriculum in 1995, there has been a conspicuous lack of substantial revision to the ELT policy since then. In stark contrast, Mozambique’s education system has experienced multiple reforms, especially the recent amendment undertaken in 2018, which restructured educational levels and altered grade allocations between primary and secondary education. These systemic changes have directly influenced the delivery of English instruction. Nevertheless, the ELT policy has not been sufficiently updated to reflect these transformations. This misalignment between language education policy and the broader educational framework engenders inconsistencies in curriculum design, teacher preparation, and learning outcomes, ultimately undermining the effectiveness of English language education in Mozambique.

Additionally, the 2018 education system reform has significant implications for teacher training. English, now introduced as a subject in secondary education starting in Grade 7, is no longer part of the teacher training curriculum at the Instituto de Formação de Professores (IFPs), which focuses on preparing primary school teachers (Niquice, 2005). Instead, higher education institutions exclusively train English language teachers, which have historically been geared toward preparing teachers for upper secondary levels.

However, these teacher education programmes frequently lack methodological training for teaching young learners (UP, 2014), particularly adolescents aged 12 to 14 who enrol in the 7^th and 8^th Grades. Consequently, this creates a pedagogical gap in the instruction of English for this age group, potentially undermining students’ motivation and engagement with the language. To address this gap, ELT programmes in higher education need to be revised to incorporate age-appropriate pedagogical strategies, concentrating on effective methods for teaching English to young adolescents as proposed by Richards & Farrell, (2005).

The Ministry of Education promotes the design and development of English language instructional materials through INDE. However, studies such as (Mawere, 2012) and Nhapulo (2013) indicate a significant shortage of these resources, especially textbooks for both teachers and students. Additionally, since the implementation of the 2018 educational reform, no new textbooks have been created or made available for educators and learners (Caramba, 2025). Consequently, teachers are forced to rely on handouts and workbooks for English instruction. This practice contrasts language teaching theories that advocate for textbooks as the primary resource for effective language teaching (Schamow & Shimichev, 2024).

In light of these challenges, Mozambican education authorities need to revisit and refine the ELT policy to ensure its alignment with the current educational framework and sociolinguistic demands. A progressive policy should prioritise early exposure to the English language, update teacher education programmes to meet young learners’ specific needs and ensure coherence between curriculum objectives and educator preparation.

6. Conclusion

The evolution of English Language Teaching (ELT) in Mozambique illustrates a complex interplay between local educational needs and global influences. The significant advancements in incorporating English into the national curriculum, particularly following the 1990s, reflect the country’s aspirations for enhanced global and regional engagement. The English language has transformed from a peripheral subject into an essential element of the national curriculum. This shift reflects the growing recognition of English as a crucial skill for global communication, economic opportunities, and social mobility.

Although there have been advances in increasing access to English education, challenges remain, including shortages of qualified teachers, lack of instructional materials, and inconsistent policy execution. These factors directly impact the quality of instruction that students receive and lead to disparities in learning outcomes across different regions and socioeconomic groups.

The persistent difficulties in executing ELT policies also emphasise the critical need for regular evaluation and reforms. These ongoing challenges highlight the need for continuous assessment and ongoing adjustments to effectively adapt and improve language teaching practices. The current misalignment between ELT policies and broader educational reforms, especially in light of the 2018 restructuring of the education system, further complicates the effective delivery of English education.

To effectively address these challenges and achieve its linguistic and educational objectives, Mozambique must prioritise early English language exposure, update teacher education curricula to meet to the needs of young learners and ensure a coherent alignment between national educational policies and the practical realities of English instruction.

Besides, future reforms in English language education should emphasise equitable distribution of educational resources, ensuring that all schools have access to the necessary materials and trained personnel. Through these reforms, Mozambique can enhance English language education and equip its learners with essential skills for the future while preserving its linguistic diversity. This will ensure that the language becomes a tool for socioeconomic advancement without undermining the value of local languages and cultures.

Data availability

The dataset supporting the findings of this study is included within the article itself.

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Edited by

• EDITORA GERAL:
  Marcia Veirano Pinto http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0795-6297

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  25 May 2026
• Date of issue
  Apr-Jun 2026

History

• Received
  16 June 2025
• Accepted
  20 Oct 2025