Executive, behavioural and emotional functioning in Spanish children with dyslexia

López-Zamora, Miguel; Porcar-Gozalbo, Nadia; Cano-Villagrasa, Alejandro; López-Chicheri, Isabel

doi:10.1590/2317-1782/e20240352es

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Original Article • CoDAS 37 (6) • 2025 • https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1782/e20240352en linkcopy

Executive, behavioural and emotional functioning in Spanish children with dyslexia

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Purpose Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder that affects reading and is associated with emotional and behavioral problems. Previous research indicates that children with dyslexia are at greater risk of developing anxiety, depression, and difficulties in executive functions, which affect their academic performance and well being.

Methods This study explored and compared behavioral, emotional, and executive functioning profiles in children with dyslexia and in neurotypical children in a sample of 120 children aged 8 to 10, divided into a dyslexia group and a control group. The BASC-3, SENA, and ENFEN were used for assessments, and data were analyzed using t-tests, Levene’s test, and mediation analyses.

Results Children with dyslexia showed significantly higher levels of aggressiveness, anxiety, depression, and attention problems. In addition, they exhibited difficulties in executive functions such as resistance to interference and verbal fluency, highlighting the impact of dyslexia in these areas.

Conclusion Mediation analyses suggest that dyslexia is a potential indicator of difficulties in executive functioning and behavior, as well as influencing internalized and externalized emotional problems. These findings underscore the need to implement comprehensive educational and therapeutic strategies to address the needs of this vulnerable population.

Keywords:
Dyslexia; Executive Functions; Anxiety; Depression; Behavioral Disorder

Behavioral and Emotional Problems	Groups		Levene's test for equality of variances			T test for equality of means
Behavioral and Emotional Problems	G-DYSLEXIA	G-CONTROL	F	Sig.	η2	t	df	Sig. (bilateral)	Mean difference	ð
Composite, Clinical, and Adaptive Scales
Aggressiveness	M = 53.38 SD = 8.36	M = 17.63 SD = 5.91	14.878	<.001	0.586	27.022	118	<.001	35.750	7.246
Anxiety	M = 55.63 SD = 7.44	M = 19.37 SD = 6.49	1.254	0.265	0.689	28.417	118	<.001	36.267	6.990
Depression	M = 54.13 SD = 7.34	M = 19.63 SD = 6.56	0.698	0.405	0.521	27.134	118	<.001	34.500	6.964
Somatization	M = 52.28 SD = 7.70	M = 18.77 SD = 6.22	2.227	0.138	0.855	26.210	118	<.001	33.517	7.049
Atypicality	M = 54.95 SD = 8.10	M = 18.85 SD = 6.05	11.679	<.001	0.971	27.631	118	<.001	36.100	7.156
Withdrawal	M = 53.48 SD = 8.06	M = 19.93 SD = 5.85	10.826	0.001	0.685	26.066	118	<.001	33.550	7.050
Attention Problems	M = 53.28 SD = 7.61	M = 20.13 SD = 5.40	10.830	0.001	0.753	27.497	118	<.001	33.150	6.603
Adaptability	M = 55.08 SD = 8.12	M = 19.38 SD = 6.24	5.360	0.022	0.698	26.978	118	<.001	35.700	7.248
Social Skills	M = 55.33 SD = 8.54	M = 19.83 SD = 5.43	20.250	<.001	0.611	27.160	118	<.001	35.500	7.159
Daily Activities	M = 53.53 SD = 7.39	M = 19.57 SD = 5.59	3.038	0.084	0.684	28.361	118	<.001	33.967	6.560
Functional Communication	M = 54.45 SD = 8.23	M = 18.20 SD = 5.99	5.155	0.025	0.752	26.227	118	<.001	35.500	7.414
Content Scales
Anger Control	M = 54.48 SD = 8.49	M = 18.20 SD = 5.99	8.091	0.005	0.814	27.039	118	<.001	36.283	7.350
Bullying	M = 53.55 SD = 7.05	M = 19.30 SD = 6.20	0.472	0.493	0.862	28.239	118	<.001	34.250	6.643
Social Developmental Disorders	M = 56.15 SD = 7.66	M = 19.42 SD = 5.92	5.693	0.019	0.834	29.368	118	<.001	36.733	6.851
Emotional Self-Control	M = 55.00 SD = 7.72	M = 19.32 SD = 5.98	7.390	0.008	0.812	28.293	118	<.001	35.683	6.908
Executive Functioning	M = 53.57 SD = 7.72	M = 17.73 SD = 6.46	3.045	0.084	0.877	27.560	118	<.001	35.833	7.122
Negative Emotionality	M = 55.88 SD = 7.45	M = 18.43 SD = 5.51	6.806	0.010	0.683	27.560	118	<.001	37.450	6.554
Resilience	M = 52.18 SD = 8.44	M = 19.23 SD = 5.89	6.490	0.012	0.509	31.297	118	<.001	32.950	7.282

Behavioral and Emotional Problems	Groups		Levene's test for equality of variances			T test for equality of means
Behavioral and Emotional Problems	G-DYSLEXIA	G-CONTROL	F	Sig.	η2	t	df	Sig. (bilateral)	Mean difference	ð
Internalizing Problems
Depression	M = 74.52 SD = 14.68	M = 30.63 SD = 10.81	8.935	0.003	0.847	18.636	118	<.001	43.883	12.898
Anxiety	M = 73.88 SD = 16.16	M = 28.35 SD = 9.29	32.239	<.001	0.748	18.875	118	<.001	45.533	13.213
Social Anxiety	M = 73.63 SD = 13.48	M = 27.82 SD = 9.42	9.780	0.002	0.884	21.575	118	<.001	45.817	11.632
Somatic Complaints	M = 71.12 SD = 14.13	M = 28.85 SD = 11.05	4.074	0.046	0.689	21.271	118	<.001	49.267	12.686
Externalizing Problems
Attention Problems	M = 73.90 SD = 14.18	M = 28.68 SD = 9.69	9.680	0.002	0.588	20.388	118	<.001	45.217	12.148
Hyperactivity-Impulsivity	M = 74.72 SD = 14.01	M = 29.88 SD = 9.97	7.889	0.006	0.698	20.203	118	<.001	44.833	12.155
Anger Control Problems	M = 75.05 SD = 14.40	M = 30.87 SD = 10.88	7.520	0.007	0.612	18.961	118	<.001	44.183	12.763
Aggression	M = 71.28 SD = 14.51	M = 30.97 SD = 11.26	5.371	0.022	0.693	17.003	118	<.001	40.317	12.988
Defiant Behavior	M = 73.45 SD = 15.36	M = 29.18 SD = 10.38	18.934	<.001	0.788	18.486	118	<.001	44.267	13.116

Executive Functions	Groups		Levene's test for equality of variances			T test for equality of means
Executive Functions	G-DYSLEXIA	G-CONTROL	F	Sig.	η2	t	df	Sig. (bilateral)	Mean Difference	ð
Resistance to Interference	M = 24.22 SD = 6.77	M = 67.62 SD = 9.66	8.885	0.003	0.856	−28.494	118	<.001	−43.400	8.342
Trails	M = 13.68 SD = 5.75	M = 43.30 SD = 10.70	39.928	<.001	0.652	−18.879	118	<.001	−29.617	8.592
Verbal Fluency	M = 2.80 SD = 1.48	M = 11.87 SD = 2.01	4.190	0.043	0.796	−28.100	118	<.001	−9.067	1.767
Rings	M = 363.13 SD = 35.83	M = 147.80 SD = 23.89	19.471	<.001	0.751	38.727	118	<.001	215.333	30.455

Variable	B	Standard Error	t	p-value	IC 95%
Dyslexia Diagnosis	−41.41	0.001	3.56	<.001	[-55.30, −30.22]
Executive Functioning	−2.47	0.01	4.89	<.001	[-3.52, −1.42]
Adjusted R²	0.755

Variable	B	Standard Error	t	p-value	IC 95%
Dyslexia Diagnosis	−39.87	0.001	3.56	<.001	[-52.80, −28.94]
Executive Functioning	−3.05	0.01	4.89	<.001	[-4.32, −1.78]
Adjusted R²	0.641

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[1] Caption: Abbreviations: G-DYSLEXIA = Dyslexia group; G-CONTROL = Control group; M = mean; SD = standard deviation; F = F statistic (Levene’s test/ANOVA); Sig. = p value; η² = eta squared (effect size); t = t statistic; df = degrees of freedom; Sig. (bilateral) = two-tailed p; Mean difference = difference in group means (G-DYSLEXIA − G-CONTROL); d = Cohen’s d.