Experimental and Numerical Study of the Structural Performance of Extruded, Pressed, and Fired Ceramic Blocks Under Different Load Conditions^*

Abstract

This study presents an experimental and numerical investigation of the structural performance of masonry built with Extruded, Pressed, and Fired Ceramic Blocks (BCEPQ), an emerging class of units for structural masonry systems. Despite their potential advantages, the mechanical behavior of BCEPQ units assembled through dry interlocking remains largely unexplored. An extensive experimental program was conducted, including physical and mechanical characterization of the blocks, compressive testing of prisms and small walls, and full-field deformation measurements using Digital Image Correlation (DIC). The blocks exhibited a characteristic compressive strength of 4.86 MPa and water absorption of 22.83%, while prisms and small walls reached average compressive strengths of 1.66 MPa and 0.98 MPa, respectively, with brittle failure modes governed by stress concentration and interface effects. A three-dimensional finite element model was developed in ANSYS 2024 R1 using experimentally obtained properties and linear elastic assumptions. Numerical results reproduced the main trends observed experimentally, with an average discrepancy of approximately 20%, confirming the exploratory nature of the model. The study provides unprecedented experimental data on BCEPQ masonry, highlights structural limitations associated with mortarless assembly, and offers technical insights to support future improvements in block geometry, manufacturing processes, and computational modeling of ceramic masonry systems.

Keywords:
Structural Masonry; Mechanical Testing; Numerical Modeling; Prisms and Small Walls; Compressive Behavior

INTRODUCTION

Structural masonry has gained renewed interest in recent decades as a competitive alternative to reinforced concrete, offering advantages such as reduced material consumption, lower construction waste, and improved execution efficiency. Ceramic structural blocks, in particular, play a key role in this system due to their thermal performance, low embodied energy, and favorable compressive behavior. However, the mechanical response of masonry is highly dependent on block geometry, manufacturing processes, and the bonding mechanism between units, which motivates continuous investigation into new block technologies.

Within this context, Extruded, Pressed, and Fired Ceramic Blocks (BCEPQ) represent an emerging class of units with potentially superior dimensional stability and interlocking precision ¹. Their combined manufacturing process-extrusion, mechanical pressing, and controlled firing-differs markedly from conventional ceramic blocks and may lead to distinct structural behavior. Despite this potential, literature still provides limited information regarding their mechanical properties and structural performance, especially when assembled through dry interlocking without mortar.

The scientific literature on ceramic structural masonry demonstrates a strong dependence of compressive behavior on block geometry, material microstructure, and load-transfer mechanisms. Foundational works ^1)-(6 established the importance of geometric configuration in controlling stress distribution, failure modes, and structural efficiency. Complementary studies ^{7), (8} examined the influence of unit imperfections, interface conditions, and the absence of mortar on prism performance. More recent investigations ^{9), (10} integrated experimental testing with finite element simulations to capture nonlinear mechanisms in ceramic masonry.

Advances in measurement technologies have also brought Digital Image Correlation (DIC) into widespread use for brittle materials, as demonstrated in studies ^11)-(13. Research focused on ceramic microstructure ^{14), (15} has contributed to understanding the transverse deformability observed in structural ceramics. Additionally, comparative analyses of ceramic and concrete blocks ^{16), (17}, along with broader assessments of industrial production processes ^{18), (19}, reinforce the need to evaluate new unit geometries and manufacturing methods. Statistical reliability approaches such as those presented in ²⁰ further highlight the importance of rigorous data treatment in masonry characterization.

Although these contributions collectively strengthen the understanding of structural masonry, none address the mechanical performance of extruded, pressed, and fired ceramic blocks (BCEPQ) nor the behavior of dry-assembled prisms and small walls-topics that remain uninvestigated and motivate the present study.

Significant knowledge gaps remain regarding: (i) the experimental characterization of BCEPQ units, prisms, and small walls; (ii) the structural behavior of dry-assembled ceramic masonry; (iii) the use of Digital Image Correlation (DIC) to measure deformation patterns and Poisson effects in this system; (iv) the development of calibrated finite element models capable of reproducing both static and dynamic responses; and (v) the vibrational behavior and natural frequencies of ceramic small walls with innovative interlocking geometries.

In response to these gaps, this study provides the following novel contributions:

an unprecedented experimental database on BCEPQ units, prisms, and small walls;

the first application of DIC to quantify deformation fields and Poisson behavior in BCEPQ masonry;

a three-dimensional finite element model incorporating experimentally obtained properties.

These contributions expand the existing knowledge on ceramic structural masonry and support the future development of optimized block geometries and more reliable computational design models.

The overall objective of this research is to investigate the structural behavior of prisms and small walls built with BCEPQ units under static and dynamic loading, through experimental testing and computational modeling, evaluating strength, deformability, failure modes, natural frequencies, and vibrational response. The findings aim to provide technical support for the safe and efficient application of this emerging system in civil construction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To understand the behavior of small walls under static loads, structural ceramic blocks from a ceramics factory located in the municipality of Campos dos Goytacazes were used. The material underwent laboratory tests following the current normative specifications. Geometric, physical, and mechanical tests were performed on the blocks. Figure 1 shows the dimensions, geometry, and characteristics of the blocks.

Figure 1:
Structural Masonry Block.

The experiments were conducted at the Civil Engineering Laboratory (LECIV) of UENF, using a Shimadzu UH - F500 kN testing machine. A detailed description of each methodological phase follows, aiming to achieve the final objective.

Characterization of Prisms

The prisms are small masonry sections composed of two or more blocks, in this research joined only by interlocking, without the need for mortar, and represent a fraction of the actual wall. According to NBR 16868-3 ²¹, at least six test specimens are required for evaluating prisms in laboratory experiments. Figure 2 shows how the prism was constructed for testing and highlights that the structure was built with 5 courses, alternating between full blocks and half blocks.

Figure 2:
Prism.

The prisms and, subsequently, the small walls are structures that will be tested under static loads, meaning they will undergo compressive strength testing. The research employed the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique during the tests. The Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique is an advanced non-destructive analysis method that enables the study of deformations and displacements in materials subjected to loads. Using digital images captured during testing, DIC compares texture patterns on the material’s surface before and after load application, allowing the full-field measurement of displacement, strain, and stress. Figure 3 shows how this technique is applied. Basically, a camera is used to capture images, and a computer with the software installed is required.

Figure 3:
Model of DIC technique application.

Based on the application of the adopted technique, Figure 4 (a) and (b) shows the final appearance of the structure after surface preparation, which consisted of applying a white paint layer as a background, followed by the spraying of black speckles necessary for digital tracking. Additionally, the images highlight the strategic positioning of the cameras, which were arranged to ensure precise capture of displacements and deformations during the tests.

Figure 4:
(a) Prism prepared for testing; (b) Camera positioning.

Characterization of the small walls

The structure consists of 11 courses and was built directly at the test site, measuring 70 cm in height and 56 cm in width. As shown in Figure 5, it was subjected to static loading to analyze its maximum rupture load and deformation behavior. According to NBR 16868-3 ²¹, at least three test specimens are required for evaluating small walls in laboratory experiments.

Figure 5:
(a) Small wall prepared to perform DIC; (b) Digital Image Correlation.

Numerical Simulation

The computational modelling of the small walls reproduced the geometry and boundary conditions of the laboratory specimens. The simulations were carried out in ANSYS Workbench (ANSYS 2024 R1, as stated in the article; the dissertation describes the same workflow and documents the modelling steps in ANSYS/SpaceClaim/Mechanical). The modelling strategy, implemented for exploratory purposes, follows a detailed micromodeling approach while adopting a linear-elastic constitutive law for the ceramic units. The main modelling steps and parameters are described below.

Model construction and material data

• Geometry - the wall geometry was constructed in the SpaceClaim environment inside ANSYS, reproducing the exact number of courses and the arrangement of full and half blocks used experimentally; CAD screenshots and the SpaceClaim models are available in the dissertation appendices.

• Material definition - a custom, homogeneous, isotropic material was defined in Engineering Data. The elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio implemented in the model were taken from the experimental characterization (E = 2.916 GPa, = 0.15). These values were used as input for both static and dynamic analyses.

• Micromodeling approach - the model represents individual blocks and half-blocks explicitly (detailed micromodeling). Although the micromodeling strategy preserves geometric discontinuities and interfaces between units, the contact definition adopted in the present implementation is “bonded” (blocks considered attached with no relative motion), i.e., interfaces were modelled as fully bonded to provide an initial estimate of stress distribution and critical regions. This choice reflects an exploratory strategy to map trends before implementing interface damage or cohesive behavior.

Discretization and mesh

• Element type and mesh topology - the geometry was discretized using three-dimensional solid elements in Mechanical (solid elements in Workbench). A Hex-dominant mesh (hexahedral-dominant) was used to obtain a more uniform stress representation and improved aspect ratios, with local refinement at block-to-block interfaces and other stress concentration regions; representative mesh images are available in the dissertation appendices.

• Model size - the final model contained 588,360 nodes, ensuring a relatively fine discretization for the 3D geometry adopted. The mesh was refined in contact regions to improve the accuracy of stress gradients.

• Convergence note - the dissertation documents mesh refinement choices and shows the mesh used, but it does not include a formal mesh-convergence study with quantitative criteria. We therefore report the mesh parameters used (Hex-dominant; local refinement at interfaces; total nodes reported) and note that a formal convergence analysis remains recommended for future work.

Boundary conditions and loading

• Boundary conditions - supports were applied to reproduce laboratory restraints: base, top, and lateral faces were constrained as reported (restraining the corresponding degrees of freedom as in the experimental setup).

• Contact definition - as noted above, block interfaces were modelled as bonded contacts (no relative tangential or normal displacement), to represent a conservative initial condition and to simplify interpretation in a linear-elastic study. This choice highlights that it reduces the number of modelling parameters in this exploratory phase.

• Applied loads - static loads of magnitudes like the experiments were applied on the top surface (the dissertation illustrates simulations with low load (500 N) and high load (50 kN) as examples). These loads were used to identify stress concentration zones and to compare qualitatively with experimental failure locations.

Analysis types and settings

• Static analysis - a Static Structural analysis was performed to compute stress, strain, and displacement fields under monotonic loading (setup → solution requests included von Mises/σ and nodal displacements). The linear-elastic constitutive model provides an initial mapping of stress concentrations and likely crack initiation regions.

• Modal and random vibration - for dynamic assessment, a Modal analysis was performed first to extract natural frequencies (six modal solutions were obtained, as reported). These modal results were then used as input for a Random Vibration (random excitation) analysis to estimate RMS displacements and stress response under broadband stochastic excitation representative of nearby operational equipment. The dissertation documents that six modal analyses were carried out, followed by the random vibration stage, facilitating the identification of critical frequencies and RMS response.

• Damping and PSD - the dissertation describes the use of random vibration but does not provide explicit numerical values for structural damping (modal damping ratios), nor does it include the precise Power Spectral Density (PSD) function used for the stochastic excitation. For transparency, these parameters were not assumed without experimental backing; the absence of explicit damping/PSD information is reported here, and we recommend that future runs either (i) adopt a conservative modal damping range (e.g., 1-5% typical for masonry structures) and state the PSD used, or (ii) include measured damping from experimental modal identification.

Post-processing and comparison with experiments

• Requested outputs - displacement fields, principal stresses, von Mises stress, and deformation contours were requested and exported for qualitative and quantitative comparison with DIC fields and experimental failure patterns.

• Model status - the model reproduced the general trends in stress distribution and modal characteristics, but an average discrepancy of ~20% was observed between numerical and experimental rupture stresses; hence, the model is presented with an exploratory character and not validated for predictive design without further calibration (e.g., interface laws, cohesive elements, or damage modelling).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Initially, the results of the geometric, physical, and mechanical tests carried out on the Extruded, Pressed, and Fired Ceramic Blocks (EPFCB) are presented, providing a deeper understanding of the blocks’ properties and their influence on overall performance. Subsequently, the results of static mechanical tests conducted on prisms and small walls are shown, with emphasis on strength, deformation, and failure mode parameters, highlighting significant changes in structural properties. Additionally, this chapter addresses the numerical modeling developed using the ANSYS 2024 R1 software.

Behavior of BCEPQ units

The compressive strength of the ceramic blocks was calculated considering the gross area, as established by the standard. The average compressive strength (fbm) and characteristic strength (f_bk) values, based on the gross area, are presented in Table I.

Table I
Strength of Ceramic Blocks.

Ceramic Block	Gross Area
Average Strength (MPa)	7.39
Characteristic Strength (MPa)	4.86
Standard Deviation (MPa)	1.82
Coefficient of Variation (%)	24.60

The BCEPQ units presented a characteristic compressive strength of 4.86 MPa and water absorption of 22.83%, indicating performance compatible with structural ceramic blocks but with limitations related to porosity. Steil ⁴ and Rizzatti ⁵ demonstrated that geometric discontinuities and elevated porosity significantly influence stress concentration and reduce compressive capacity in ceramic blocks, which is consistent with the reduced strength observed in this study. Similarly, previous studies showed that hole configuration and internal web thickness play a key role in defining failure modes, supporting the brittle cracking pattern seen in the BCEPQ units under axial compression.

The water absorption value exceeding the normative limit indicates a higher level of open porosity, which may negatively affect both structural performance and long-term durability. Increased porosity is commonly associated with reduced stiffness, higher susceptibility to microcracking, and greater sensitivity to moisture variations. This condition may accelerate degradation mechanisms under cyclic wetting-drying exposure, potentially leading to progressive loss of mechanical performance over time. Therefore, although the blocks meet minimum strength requirements, the elevated water absorption highlights the need for careful evaluation of durability aspects in future applications.

The BCEPQ results fall slightly below this range, reinforcing the influence of high-water absorption and dry interlocking on the mechanical response. The modulus of elasticity of the blocks was estimated according to the recommendations of NBR ^21)-(22. The characteristic compressive strength of the blocks was 4.86 MPa; therefore, the calculated modulus of elasticity was 2,916 MPa or 2.92 GPa. This deformation modulus was used as a parameter in the numerical modeling of the prisms, along with Poisson’s ratio, which, according to the standard, is 0.15 for ceramic blocks.

Masonry prisms

The results of the compressive strength tests conducted on twelve prisms are presented in Table II, with eleven prisms shown due to the application of data exclusion criteria. The tests were carried out at LECIV/UENF using a Shimadzu press, model UH-F500kNI.

Table II
Compressive Strength of the Prisms.

N° of Prisms	Gross Area (mm²)	Average Strength (MPa)	Standard Deviation (MPa)	Coefficient of Variation (%)
11	39,200	1.66	0.35	21.13%

The prisms constructed with BCEPQ units reached an average compressive strength of 1.66 MPa. This behavior aligns with results reported by other authors who demonstrated that prisms assembled without mortar tend to develop premature tensile stresses at the interfaces, reducing the effective load-bearing capacity. Observed that insufficient lateral confinement leads to strain localization and early vertical splitting, a pattern that matches the cracking observed experimentally in the BCEPQ prisms.

The absence of mortar results in a structural efficiency of approximately 25-40% relative to unit strength, depending on block geometry and interface friction ⁸. The BCEPQ prisms fall within this range, indicating that the mechanical efficiency measured in this study is consistent with patterns previously identified for dry-assembled ceramic masonry.

As mentioned above, the following table presents the compressive strength results of the analyzed prisms. The Two Standard Deviations Method (±2σ) was used to determine whether data should be rejected or retained.

The modulus of elasticity of the prisms was estimated following the recommendations of NBR 16868-1 ²², which states that the modulus is given by 600fpk. The average compressive strength of the prisms was 1.66 MPa, and based on this value, the average modulus of elasticity of the prisms was 996 MPa. Furthermore, the standard establishes that Poisson’s ratio for ceramic blocks and bricks is 0.15.

For the application of the DIC technique, four regions were selected for analysis, as illustrated in Figure 6. These four regions were analyzed and are referred to as surface components, or markers.

Figure 6:
Deviation labels, color-coded separation.

The figure shows colored markers, which serve to differentiate the behavior or characteristics of each specific point on the structure over time. This can be relevant, for example, to highlight variations in stresses, strains, or responses to different loading or stress conditions. By observing these colors, it is possible to easily correlate the points with the variables being analyzed.

The regions of higher strain concentration identified by DIC coincide with the crack initiation and propagation zones observed experimentally, confirming the heterogeneous and brittle nature of the ceramic material and the strong influence of local geometric discontinuities.

Figure 7 shows the stress-strain graph, which is fundamental for the mechanical characterization of masonry prisms, as it allows visualization of the structural behavior of the material under loading. A total of six graphs were obtained-one for each prism-corresponding to the compression tests carried out on six specimens, which is the minimum required by the standard. The following figure presents the graph for Prism 1, which is representative of the behavior observed in the other prisms.

Figure 7:
Stress-Strain Graph of Prism.

The graph reveals a nonlinear pattern, which can be explained by the non-homogeneous nature of the ceramic block and its intrinsic material properties.

The DIC technique enabled the accurate measurement of strain even under low-deformation conditions preceding failure. This capability is particularly advantageous for brittle materials, such as structural ceramic blocks, which do not undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture. Figure 8 illustrates the strain response of each monitored region within its respective analysis domain.

Figure 8:
Time (s) vs Strain (%) Graph of the Prism.

The failure mode of the prisms was also analyzed. Two distinct types of failure were observed in the ceramic blocks during the compression tests. The first type was characterized by the formation of a central vertical crack along the blocks. This behavior indicates a typical tensile failure resulting from the application of compressive loads. Although the main loading is compressive, tensile failure occurs due to the limited tensile strength of the material, which is common in brittle materials such as ceramics.

The second type of failure identified was the lateral spalling of the blocks. This phenomenon is generally associated with the Poisson effect, in which lateral expansion occurs in response to axial compression. The internal pressure generated in the transverse direction may exceed the lateral cohesive strength of the material, resulting in the detachment or displacement of fragments from the blocks. Both failure modes reinforce the brittle and anisotropic behavior of ceramic blocks under compressive loads. The Figure 9 illustrates how the failure occurred in the prisms.

Figure 9:
Prism Failure.

The reduced stiffness and strength observed in the prisms are physically associated with the absence of mortar, which limits lateral confinement and promotes early tensile cracking along block interfaces. This condition intensifies stress concentration at the block webs and leads to a predominantly brittle response, as typically observed in ceramic masonry systems assembled without load redistribution mechanisms.

Small Walls

To calculate the average compressive strength of the small walls, the same testing machine used in the compression tests of blocks and prisms was employed. For this test, three small walls were used, as specified by the standard. The results are presented in the table below.

Table III
Compressive Strength of Small Walls.

Small Wall	Gross Area (mm²)	Failure Load (N)	Gross Stress (N/mm²)	Average Strength (MPa)	Standard Deviation	Coefficient of Variation (%)
1	78400	96429.7	1.23
2	78400	66590.62	0.85
3	78400	67853.13	0.87	0.98	0.21	21.75

For the actual calculation of the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio, instrumentation was used; in this case, the DIC technique. The calculation of the elastic modulus was performed based on the following equation:

$\nu =\frac{\epsilon t}{\epsilon \mathcal{l}}$ (A)

where:

E = Young’s Modulus (MPa);

σ₁ and σ₂ = Stresses (MPa) corresponding to two points in the linear portion of the curve (usually between 5% and 30% of the maximum stress);

ε₁ and ε₂ = Longitudinal strains corresponding to σ₁ and σ₂ (dimensionless, or in mm/mm).

For the calculation of Poisson’s ratio, the formula to be used is shown below:

$E=\frac{{\sigma }_2-{\sigma }_1}{{\epsilon }_2-{\epsilon }_1}$ (B)

where:

ν: Poisson’s ratio (dimensionless);

ε₁: Transversal strain (lateral expansion);

ε₂: Longitudinal strain (shortening in the load direction).

After performing the calculations, an average elastic modulus of 761 MPa and an average Poisson’s ratio of 0.32 were found.

The stress-strain curve, obtained from mechanical tests, relates the applied stress to the resulting strain. From this curve, it is possible to identify distinct regions of the material’s structural behavior, such as the elastic phase, where deformation is reversible, and the plastic phase, where permanent deformations occur. In brittle materials, such as structural ceramic blocks, this transition is usually abrupt, with little capacity for deformation before failure. Figure 10 illustrates the behavior of the smallwall under the application of compressive force.

Figure 10
Stress-Strain Curve of the Small Wall.

The analysis regions were the same as those of the prisms and were also identified with the same colors. Therefore, Figure 11 shows the displacement in each analysis region, highlighting that each specific point of the structure exhibits distinct behavior.

Figure 11
Displacement in (x) as a function of time.

The failure mode of the small wall was the same as that of the prism, which can be explained by the use of the same block type and similar characteristics. The structure experienced displacement of its blocks and failed due to crushing.

Modeling

The small wall was modeled in the software using a combination of whole and half-blocks, aiming to ensure proper fit within the structure and provide greater stability under static loads. A micromodeling approach was adopted to obtain accurate results, taking into account each connection between the blocks, in order to faithfully represent the structural behavior under loading conditions, as exemplified in Figure 12.

Figure 12:
Block and half block.

The deformation shown in Figure 13 (a) occurs at the top of the structure due to the short duration of load application and the use of a reduced load of only 500 N. However, as the load increases, the color distribution changes, indicating the areas where the structure becomes more susceptible to collapse. The maximum stress occurs at the lower left side of the small wall and is subsequently transferred to the center of the structure, as illustrated in Figure 13 (b). This region undergoes the greatest deformations, ultimately leading to failure.

Figure 13:
(a) Deformation under low load, (b) Stress in the structure after static loading.

For an analysis of the structure’s behavior under dynamic load actions, a modal analysis was chosen. The structure has an infinite number of natural frequencies, but the most important are the first ones (modes 1 to 6), as they are more easily excited by external sources (wind, engines, footsteps, among others). The modal analysis performed on the small wall resulted in different natural frequencies, as shown in Table 4. Figure 14 shows the estimated equivalent RMS stress field. This value represents the average stress demand in the structure throughout the random excitation. The crucial point occurs at around 6.63 MPa. Values from 0.0 to 1.0 correspond to the normalized height and width, while the value on the right, ranging from 0.0 to 6.48, represents the RMS stress value (MPa).

Table IV
Modal Analysis Results: Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes.

Mode	Natural Frequency (Hz)	Mode Description	Possible Activation Cause
Mode 1	35.8 Hz	Global vibration with maximum deformation at the center of the wall.	Wind, ground vibration, and slow loads.
Mode 2	224.4 Hz	Symmetrical deformation with greater central vertical bending.	Machines with vertical components.
Mode 3	628.3 Hz	Localized vibration at the top with phase inversion zones (nodes).	Specific vibrations in the upper parts.
Mode 4	1231.3 Hz	Vibration with multiple nodes, showing alternating tension and compression bands.	High-frequency machinery, local impact.
Mode 5	2035.2 Hz	Multiple regions of simultaneous deformation, with cross pattern or central vibrating bands.	Resonance with industrial equipment.
Mode 6	3040.5 Hz	Complex mode with alternating displacement zones, a pattern of multiple vibrating cells.	Concentrated vibrations, high-energy excitations.

Figure 14:
Structure susceptible to mode 1.

Mode 1 is the most dominant, but with displacements smaller than those caused by wind and machines. The response of the higher modes is residual, since machine vibration rarely excites such high frequencies, except in the case of resonance. Figure 15 shows the result of the structure after being subjected to vibration mode 1.

Figure 15:
Estimated equivalent RMS stress field.

Finally, the results of the random vibration analysis applied to this ceramic structural wall with actual dimensions of 66 cm in height, 56 cm in width, and 14 cm in thickness are presented. The excitation was modeled based on typical vibrations from industrial machines, considering the dominant contribution of vibration mode 1. The following figure shows the estimated equivalent RMS stress field. This value represents the average stress demand on the structure throughout the random excitation. The central point is the most critical, reaching approximately 6.63 MPa. The values from 0.0 to 1.0 correspond to the normalized height and width, while the value on the right, ranging from 0.0 to 6.48, represents the RMS stress value (MPa).

CONCLUSION

The experimental results indicate that the investigated ceramic blocks constitute a technically viable alternative for structural masonry applications, presenting a characteristic compressive strength of 4.86 MPa. However, the structural performance of dry-assembled elements was significantly reduced, with average compressive strengths of 1.66 MPa for prisms and 0.98 MPa for small walls, highlighting the strong influence of block geometry and interface conditions on load transfer mechanisms and failure behavior.

The numerical modeling under static loading was able to reproduce the general stress distribution observed experimentally, achieving an efficiency of approximately 80% in identifying critical regions, with an average discrepancy of about 20% between numerical and experimental results. These differences are primarily associated with the linear elastic assumption and the idealized representation of block interfaces adopted in the model.

The dynamic analyses provided original insights into the vibrational behavior of dry-assembled ceramic masonry. The results showed that the fundamental mode dominates the structural response under random excitation induced by machinery, with maximum RMS displacements and stresses concentrated at the central region of the wall, reaching values on the order of 6.63 MPa. Although these results indicate a moderate risk related to long-term fatigue, they offer relevant information for preliminary assessments of reinforcement strategies, structural design, and durability.

Despite the contributions presented, this study is subject to important limitations. The absence of frictional or cohesive interface modeling and the lack of experimental dynamic validation restrict the generalization of the numerical predictions. Future research should therefore focus on incorporating more realistic contact formulations and nonlinear material behavior, as well as on additional experimental investigations on prisms and small walls with modified block geometries. Furthermore, experimental modal identification and controlled vibration tests are essential to validate the dynamic response and to support the safe and reliable application of BCEPQ masonry systems in practical engineering scenarios.

DATA AVAILABILITY

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

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• ¹² Santos, A.H.H.; Pitangueira, R.L.S.; Ribeiro, G.O.; Caldas, R.B. Study of size effect using digital image correlation. Ibracon Structures and Materials Journal. Vol. 8, N. 3 (2015). p. 323-340. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1983-41952015000300005
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1983-41952015000300005
• ¹³ Assis, L. S.; Assis, J. T.; Pessoa, J. R. C.; Tavares Jr, A. D. Elaboration of fracture prediction map using 2D digital image correlation - 2D CID. Rev. IBRACON Estrut. Mater. , vol. 15, no. 4, e15403, (2022). https://doi.org/10.1590/S1983-41952022000400003
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/S1983-41952022000400003
• ¹⁴ Zhou, X.; Li, M.; Tang, S. Anisotropic Deformation Analysis of Structural Ceramic Blocks Using DIC Technique. Construction and Building Materials, v. 278, p. 122334, 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122334.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122334
• ¹⁵ Mohamad, G.; Rizzatti, E.; Roman, H. R. Failure Mode, Deformability and Compressive Strength of Small Structural Masonry Walls. Ambiente Construído, Porto Alegre, v. 11, n. 3, p. 7-22, jul./set. 2011. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-86212011000300002
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-86212011000300002
• ¹⁶ Caldas, L.R.; Pittau, F.; Schaeffer, R.; Saraiva, A.K.E.B.; Paiva, R.d.L.M.; Toledo Filho, R.D. Concrete vs. Ceramic Blocks: Environmental Impact Evaluation Considering a Country-Level Approach. World 2021, 2, 482-504. https://doi.org/10.3390/ world2040030
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• ¹⁷ Muneron, L. M.; Hammad, A. WA.; Najjar, K.; Haddad, A.; Vazquez, E. G. Comparison of the Environmental Performance of Ceramic Brick and Concrete Blocks in the Vertical Seals’ Subsystem in Residential Buildings Using Life Cycle Assessment. Cleaner Engineering and Technology, Volume 5, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2021.100243
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• ²⁰ Montgomery, D. C.; Runger, G. C. Estatística aplicada e probabilidade para engenheiros. LTC, 2016.
• ²¹ Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT). NBR 16868-3: Structural Masonry. Part 3: test methods. Rio de Janeiro: ABNT, 2020 (In Portuguese).
• ²² Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT). NBR 16868-1: Structural masonry - Part 1: Design. Rio de Janeiro: ABNT , 2021 (In Portuguese).

• *
  Paper presented at the 69th CBC ( https://abceram.org.br/69cbc/ )

Edited by

• (AE: Daniel Zanetti de Florio)

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  27 Apr 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  15 July 2025
• Reviewed
  13 Dec 2025
• Accepted
  26 Jan 2026