Vat photopolymerization of Sumitomo AKP-53 Alumina with minimal solvent additionAbstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) via vat photopolymerization (VPP) applied to alumina has emerged as a promising method for fabricating ceramic parts with complex geometries. Proper slurry formulation, comprising photosensitive resin, ceramic powder, and additives, is essential to ensure structural integrity and high densification after sintering. Solid loadings above 40% v/v are desirable, although they present rheological challenges. In this study, high-purity AKP-53 alumina (D50 = 0.17 µm) was employed; its high reactivity enables sintering at approximately 1400 °C but demands higher organic content due to its fine particle size. A ceramic suspension with over 40% v/v solids was formulated using n-methyl-2-pyrrolidone as the solvent. The resulting green bodies exhibited cohesion, no delamination, and high densification. As a proof of concept, an aircraft engine shroud was manufactured, validating the process for producing high-complexity structural ceramic components.
Keywords:
Rapid Prototyping; Highly Reactive Alumina; Sumitomo AKP-53 Alumina; Additive Manufacturing; 3D Printing
INTRODUCTION
Driven by technological advancements and the increasing demand for high-performance materials combined with sustainable solutions, interest in efficient production methods has grown substantially. As a result, Additive Manufacturing has emerged as a prominent field of study, particularly regarding its application in the fabrication of advanced ceramic materials 1),(2),(3),(4),(5),(6),(7.
Additive Manufacturing (AM), a process in which objects are fabricated layer by layer from a digital model 8, distinguishes itself from conventional subtractive methods by eliminating the need for molds and enabling the production of complex, customized geometries. Currently, AM offers high-dimensional precision, cost-effectiveness, operational simplicity, and manufacturing flexibility, while significantly reducing material waste 1),(9, including a wide variety of materials such as polymers, metals, ceramics, composites, and biological materials 10.
The application of ceramic materials, such as Alumina (Al2O3), has received attention due to their various properties, such as high mechanical strength, high stiffness, low thermal conductivity, and high chemical stability 5),(11. Ceramic parts can be produced by a variety of AM technologies, among which Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) is notable, as it provides parts with good resolution and surface finish 4. It is suitable for producing small ceramic components for high-precision applications or structural parts that require good mechanical properties, comparable to conventional methods. The VPP technique uses a slurry composed of a photopolymerizable resin highly loaded with ceramic powders. During the process, the mixture is cured layer by layer through exposure to ultraviolet light, which forms a green body. After curing, the organic phase, consisting of the resin and processing aids, is removed. This is followed by sintering the part to achieve the desired density and mechanical properties.
One of the main challenges in ceramic additive manufacturing is achieving the highest possible solid loading while ensuring that the viscosity remains suitable for the printing process. Additionally, densification needs to occur at the lowest possible temperature with minimal shrinkage to maintain dimensional stability. In ceramic production, smaller particle sizes result in a larger specific surface area, which directly impacts the formulation of the slurry. As the particle size decreases, the interactions between particles increase, leading to a greater tendency for agglomeration due to intermolecular forces 2. The technological applications for ceramic parts with complex geometries depend on the controlled properties of their microstructure. For these applications, advanced ceramics are utilized-either synthetic materials designed for high-performance uses or traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced 12, such as Sumitomo alumina.
Sumitomo AKP-53 Alumina is an advanced synthetic ceramic powder, consisting of high-purity oxide and applied in products where high performance is required. According to the material’s databook from the manufacturer 13, AKP-53 alumina is produced by the hydrolysis of aluminum oxide and is characterized by a highly pure and homogeneous crystalline structure, having a purity percentage greater than or equal to 99.99%, a sintering temperature around 1400 °C, and an average particle size of 0.17µm.
Sudan I, whose chemical name is 1-phenylazo-2-naphthol, is a UV-visible light absorber in photopolymerizable systems and has strong absorption in the 400-520 nm range. With a high ceramic load, there is significant light scattering. Sudan I absorbs part of the light and improves the control of interlayer curing, resulting in stronger bonds between layers and reducing delamination. Sudan has already been used in ceramic slurries with good results 14.
In this work, the focus was on developing a Sumitomo AKP-53 alumina slurry with minimal solvent content and a solids concentration sufficient to achieve suitable viscosity for vat photopolymerization, enabling the fabrication of dense, defect-free test specimens.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sumitomo AKP-53 alumina, with a purity greater than 99.99%, a mean particle size of 170 nm, and a BET surface area of 13.7 m²/g (produced by Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd., Japan), was selected for this study as body material. Its high purity and high reactivity make it suitable for products that require excellent performance in established mechanical, thermal, and chemical applications. 15), (16
Due to the relatively smaller average particle size, a slurry with Sumitomo AKP-53 Alumina requires a higher concentration of organics. The formulation of the organic phase is key, as its components, in addition to shaping after curing, must ensure the flow, distribution, and packing of the ceramic particles. For this, auxiliary additives such as solvents, surfactants, deflocculants, plasticizers, and others are added to the resin 17.
Photopolymerized Slurry
The photopolymerized slurries were formulated using polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA 250, Sigma Aldrich, USA) as the crosslinking monomer. Phenylbis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phosphine oxide (PPO, Sigma Aldrich, USA) served as the photoinitiator, while Disperbyk 111 (BYK-Chemie, Germany) was used as the dispersant. Sudan I (Sigma Aldrich, USA) acted as the UV light absorber. N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (Synth, Labsynth, Brazil) was included as an acrylic solvent to reduce the viscosity of the slurry; this solvent also assists in creating channels in the green part during the debinding stage, facilitating the escape of decomposition gases from other organic compounds. Finally, stearic acid diluted in xylene was added as a surfactant to minimize bubble formation during mixing.
It is crucial to recognize that the materials used may pose health risks to the operator. Handling, printing, and post-processing should be conducted within a fume hood.
The challenge involves obtaining a highly loaded slurry with low viscosity and safely removing organic components afterward. Initial experiments indicated that the nanometric fraction of the particles plays a significant role, necessitating a maximum powder loading of approximately 40% v/v for the slurry. The compositions are summarized in Table I: formulation “A” contains a solvent; formulation “B” is solvent-free; formulation “C” is also solvent-free but includes 0.01% v/v Sudan I; and formulation “D” combines a solvent, Sudan I, and stearic acid, which has been pre-diluted in xylene. Sudan I was added to reduce light scattering during the curing process, thereby improving interlayer bonding and minimizing delamination. Stearic acid was included to eliminate air bubbles generated during the preparation of slurries “A,” “B,” and “C.”
To ensure the homogeneity of the slurry, the formulation was prepared in two methods (Speed mixer and ball mill). The initial mixing was performed in a Hauschild SpeedMixer machine for 3 cycles, each complete cycle consisted of 2 min and 35 s, with two stages of 15 s at 800 rpm and 140 s at 1600 rpm. The first mixing cycle was dedicated to resin for the mixer of PEGDA monomer with the photoinitiator. In the second cycle, the powder and 50% of the dispersant were added. The third cycle included the addition of the other half of the dispersant. Although controlled addition of the dispersant was performed, residual agglomerates of Sumitomo AKP-53 alumina powder were visually observed as small clusters of concentrated material. To promote deagglomeration and improve the suspension’s homogeneity, a second mixing method was carried out in a ball mill, using a mass ratio of alumina to zirconia spheres of 1:2, with 5 mm diameter spheres, inside a Nalgene jar 63mm at a rotation of 114 rpm, for a period of 2 h.
All formulations exhibited shear-thinning behavior, with viscosities ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 Pa.s at a shear rate of 30s-1, measured using a rotational viscometer (DV2T Extra, Brookfield, Canada) at room temperature (23-25 °C).
Specimens 3D Printing
Specimens in the shape of bars were printed using two printer technologies, a customized top-down printer 18 and a commercial bottom-up Flashforge Hunter 3D Printer, high-precision equipment with a native UV projector (light engine) emitting energy of 4.2 mW/cm² and using a 0.15 mm thickness FEP (Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene) as release screen film.
Debinding and Sintering
The bodies underwent a comprehensive heating process, which included single-stage heating, joint thermal debinding, firing, and sintering in air, all conducted in a chamber furnace (Lindberg/Blue M). This process followed a heating curve recommended by Camargo 19, as illustrated in Figure 1, based on thermogravimetric analysis using an SDT Q600 (TA Instruments). The initial stage, up to 600 °C, was identified as the debinding step. Following this, the process involved firing (which includes the combustion of pyrolyzed carbon and neck formation) and sintering, achieving maximum temperatures of 1500 °C and 1600 °C, with a holding time of up to 2 h at these peaks. Various studies have suggested methods to enhance densification and resistance, such as the introduction of sintering additives 20, the multimodal addition of different particle sizes 21, and the application of Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) for post-printed parts 22. In this study, we explored the effects of increasing the sintering temperature, with formulation “D” successfully reaching 1600 °C while maintaining its chemical composition.
The thermal debinding stage, which involves heating, poses potential health risks due to the release of harmful exhaust gases. These gases can generate volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulates such as tar, grease, soot, oils, and waxes as toxic emissions 23), (24. To minimize these dangers, the gases are collected and treated in an afterburner (secondary furnace), essentially a heated cartridge that reaches red-hot temperatures and is supplied with airflow. As the gases move through this oxidizing environment, harmful emissions are significantly reduced 22), (24.
The sintered bodies, shaped as bars measuring 25 x 2.0 x 1.5 mm, were characterized in five replicates using a 3-point flexural strength test (ASTM C1161). This was conducted with a Bionix testing machine (MTS 370.02), utilizing a span of 20 mm and a load application speed of 0.2 mm/min. For control and comparison purposes, specimens of similar dimensions were formed in a uniaxial press at 100 MPa, consolidated in a dry isostatic press at 200 MPa, and sintered at 1500 °C for 2 h. Additionally, the same groups were evaluated for apparent density using Archimedes’ principle, following ASTM C373-88, with an analytical balance that has a precision of 0.01 miligrams.
Case Study as proof-of-concept
As a proof-of-concept, a case study relevant to the aerospace sector was developed to evaluate the feasibility of producing an alumina aircraft engine shroud. The selected model includes internal airflow channels that are difficult or unfeasible to manufacture using conventional methods (Figure 2). Shrouds are components used in high-pressure turbines to protect and stabilize turbine blades under severe thermal and mechanical conditions. Their structural features are designed to control airflow, reduce gas leakage, and improve engine efficiency. The development of ceramic-matrix shrouds through additive manufacturing has gained increasing interest in the aeronautical industry due to their enhanced thermal resistance and performance 25.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3D Printing
Formulation “A” was printed on the customized top-down printer 18. After conducting preliminary layer thickness tests, the equipment was configured to operate with 50 μm layers. Figure 3 shows a test specimen resulting from the photopolymerization of the slurry in the customized 3D printer. After printing, layer inaccuracies were observed on the side faces of the ceramic parts (Figure 3 b).
The Formulation “A” and solvent-free formulation “B” were printed in a bottom-up printer and were observed to have high light scattering, resulting in unwanted and pronounced edges on the bodies next to the platform. To identify the point for improvement and understand if the light scattering caused by the Sumitomo AKP-53 Alumina powder was a problem, an additional test was performed to reduce lateral light dispersion by adding 0.01% v/v of Sudan I based on the resin quantity to formulation “B”, thus creating formulation “C”. Finally, formulation “D” was printed, showing improved precision of the part edges (Figure 4). Printing was configured for a layer thickness of 50 μm with an exposure time of 2 s per layer, 4 adhesion layers at 8s, and 100% projection intensity.
Formulation “D” with solvent, 0.005% Sudan I, and stearic acid printed on the Forge Hunter; (a) on the printing platform, (b) a set of 6 freshly printed bars, and (c) sets of bars.
Sintering and Mechanical Characterization
The bodies printed with formulations “A”, “B”, and “C” were sintered in a single batch, reaching a maximum temperature of 1500°C with a 2-hour holding time, 100°C above the temperature recommended by the alumina manufacturer for conventional manufacturing methods. A representative image was selected for presentation in Figure 5. Formulation “D” was sintered at 1600°C to improve densification. It is observed that after sintering, the presence of delamination noted in the bodies obtained from the solvent-free formulations “B” and “C” was reinforced. The phenomenon associated with solvent action and delamination has unclear underlying mechanisms, which may involve either chemical factors (such as modified polymer structures) or mechanical factors (such as sticking to the release film or stress concentration during peeling). To improve our understanding and clarify this phenomenon, ongoing research is being conducted.
Selection of representative bodies and tests for each experimental group by formulations and their printing methods: (a) “A”, in Top-Down/solvent; (b) “A”, in Bottom-Up/solvent; (c) “B”, in Bottom-Up/solvent free; (d) “C”, in Bottom-Up/solvent free/Sudan I; (e) “D”, Bottom-Up/solvent/Sudan I/Stearic acid.
The mechanical characterization of the specimens was carried out using a three-point bending test on as-sintered ceramic samples, which were not subjected to any machining or polishing. The average values are presented in Table II. It was observed that parts printed using the top-down method demonstrated improved strength, achieving an average value of 70 MPa compared to 60 MPa for those produced by the bottom-up method. Additionally, when examining the relationship between the bottom-up groups, it was noted that samples made with a solvent exhibited higher flexural strength, averaging over 60 MPa. In contrast, solvent-free samples had flexural strength values below 50 MPa. The higher sintering temperature of 1600 °C positively influenced performance, increasing the average flexural strength to 125 MPa. However, compared with pressed bodies, mechanical strength was significantly reduced; pressed bodies achieved an average strength of 352 MPa after sintering at 1500 ºC-2 h, indicating challenges in printing this alumina when high mechanical strength is required.
Along with the analysis of the mean values, Figure 6 shows representative stress-strain curves for one specimen from each sample group. It is observed that groups “B” and “C,” which correspond to the solvent-free samples, exhibit “step-like” profiles. This behavior indicates progressive failures occurring between successive layers, demonstrating the weak interlayer adhesion typical of these formulations.
Stress-strain curves for a representative of the groups, in (a) “A” Top-Down/solvent; (b) “A”, Bottom-Up/solvent; (c) “B”, Bottom-Up/solvent free; (d) “C”, in Bottom-Up/solvent free/Sudan I; (e) “D” Bottom-Up/solvent/Sudan I/Stearic acid; (f) control part by isostatic pressing.
Figure 7 illustrates the densification of the specimens. All additive manufacturing (AM) batches exhibited total porosity greater than 13%. However, the formulations that included a solvent produced denser bodies with lower open porosity. Notably, those manufactured using the top-down system displayed the lowest porosity values. In contrast, the bodies created from solvent-free slurry demonstrated higher total porosity, exceeding 20%, with a significant predominance of open porosity. This open porosity, which is considerably greater than the closed porosity, qualifies the material for applications that require permeability. Consequently, the average flexural strength values of the specimens were significantly lower than those achieved through isostatic pressing. Hsiang et al. (2021) 22 similarly used alumina with an av erage particle size of 180 nm to develop a 40 vol.% slurry, resulting in porosity and delaminations that added CIP after printing.
Achievements of the experimental groups include apparent density (1st bars - g/cm³), open porosity (2nd bars - %), and total porosity (3rd bars - %).
Case Study
The concept piece was produced using the bottom-up method with formulation “B” (solvent-free), as shown in Figure 8. The curved grooves were created, demonstrating potential for application in complex shapes.
Sector of an aeronautical shroud printed with bottom-up technology, in (a) piece laid out on the table and in (b) on the palm.
CONCLUSIONS
Additive manufacturing of ceramic materials enables the production of three-dimensional objects without the need for molds by adding material layer by layer. This process is highlighted in a case study showcasing a complex profile that is unfeasible for traditional manufacturing methods.
Test specimens created with the addition of solvent to the slurry formulation exhibited higher flexural strength values compared to those produced without solvent. In the formulations without solvent, there was noticeable delamination between layers, as demonstrated by stress-strain curves exhibiting a step-like behavior, which is characteristic of interlaminar fractures. These findings support the hypothesis that the solvent n-methyl-2-pyrrolidone enhances layer integrity during the photopolymerization process.
In the bottom-up printing process, signs of delamination were observed more frequently, both visually and through mechanical testing. In contrast, the top-down technology produced objects with greater structural integrity and superior mechanical performance. Notably, the highest mechanical strength, averaging 71 MPa, was achieved with a solvent-containing formulation printed using the top-down system.
In the optimized formulation “D” which includes a solvent and stearic acid and is sintered at 1600 °C, we observed the best overall performance. This formulation achieved an average strength of 125 MPa and a densification rate of 78.1%. The improved results can be attributed to the DLP projector system and the inclusion of a surfactant, which helps to reduce bubbles and porosity. If high density and densification are required, progress must be made once the standard produced by isostatic pressing reaches an average value of 386 MPa and 98.5% densification.
Future work will investigate the effects of the solvent n-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, focusing on the barriers to full densification during burning and sintering, to achieve higher flexural strength in bodies manufactured through additive manufacturing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the company MTE-THOMSON for the availability of the Hauschild SpeedMixer machine and grant number CNPq proc. 307143/2022-8, STDP/Angola Edital 2.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.
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Paper presented at the 69th CBC (https://abceram.org.br/69cbc/)
