Impact of cropping systems and year on yield and grain quality of triticale grown in a semi-arid region

ABSTRACT

The demand for triticale is increasing due to its good production potential, tolerance to abiotic stress, and nutritional value. One of the most important strategies for increasing the yield and quality of triticale grains is the choice of the most suitable cultivars for various management and environmental conditions. This study was conducted in a semi-arid area of Romania (Oltenia Plain) with eight Romanian triticale cultivars over three growing seasons, following two cropping systems (conventional and organic). It was observed that the response of the triticale crop was strongly influenced by the crop management, with a decrease of -52.4% in yield, -17.2% in thousand-grain weight, -26.7% in protein content and -10.8% in test weight for the organic system. On average, for conventional system, Zvelt (8.25 t·ha^-1) followed by Zori (7.73 t·ha^-1) and Pisc (7.61 t·ha^-1) obtained the highest yields. In organic system, Zori (3.87 t•ha-1) and Zvelt (3.75 t·ha^-1) obtained the highest yields, but statistically insignificant compared to the other cultivars. Good grain quality in conventional system was shown by Tulnic, which obtained the highest protein content (16.1%) and the highest test weight (73.1 kg·hl^-1), and in organic system by Zvelt which obtained a high protein content (11.3%) and the highest test weight (64.8 kg·hl^-1).The 2022/2023 growing season had high temperatures during grain-filling period, favoring a higher protein content.

Key words
conventional system; organic system; protein content; test weight; ×Triticosecale

INTRODUCTION

To reduce the harmful impact of agriculture on the environment, soil and people, organic agriculture based on the use of only natural methods is currently one of the priorities of the European Union’s agricultural policy (European Green Deal), a strategy that aims to increase the organic agricultural area to at least 25% of the total agricultural area by 2030 (EC 2025).

Organic agriculture is a production management system aimed at improving the health of the ecosystem and people. Since the cultivation of plants in accordance with the principles of organic agriculture is associated with the abandonment of the use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers, only the choice of the most suitable cultivars for each species and crop area can lead to increased productivity and quality. Numerous previous studies have shown that two major threats to the yield and quality of cereal grains in organic agriculture are weed infestation (Feledyn-Szewczyk et al. 2020) and the attack of diseases and pests (Zakir and Belete 2019).

Triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack) is a cereal resulting from the artificial cross between wheat (Triticum spp.) and rye (Secale cereale L.). In 2023, globally, over 3.5 million hectares were cultivated with triticale, yielding over 13 million tons, and in Romania, 59.4 thousand hectares were cultivated with a total production of 197.1 thousand tons.

Triticale generally combines wheat genome traits, such as high yield and grain quality, with rye traits, such as disease and pest resistance (Silva et al. 2014, Faccini et al. 2023, Cionca et al. 2024). In addition to these advantages, triticale also exhibits better tolerance to adverse environmental conditions, such as drought, frost, and nutrient-deficient soils, compared to wheat (Zakir and Belete 2019). Therefore, triticale’s ability to adapt to adverse environmental conditions makes it more suitable for organic farming compared to other cereals. Furthermore, triticale is distinguished by protein content similar to wheat, more phenolic compounds and more soluble fiber. Its higher lysine content increases the biological value of proteins, leading to a more balanced amino acid composition compared to wheat (Fraú et al. 2016, Camerlengo and Kiszonas 2023), and these traits are attractive for food production (bread, pasta, cakes) (Zhu 2018). Triticale exceeds wheat by 14% and rye by 23% in terms of exchange energy content, and consumption of triticale grains improves digestion, helps control diabetes and stimulates bone growth (Kamanova et al. 2023). Due to its nutritional quality and the increasing interest of consumers in the nutritional value and sustainability of food products, Hosseinian and Mazza (2009) suggest that triticale may become an important food for the future of humanity.

In Europe and Romania, triticale is mainly used for animal feed. Triticale cultivation in Romania is accompanied by certain difficulties, for example, difficult marketing due to the lack of official grading factors and pricing for triticale, as well as the lack of cultivars well adapted to local agrotechnical and environmental factors (Bonea 2024).

Worldwide, due to its multiple uses, triticale has started to receive greater importance, and research on improving grain yield and quality in organic agriculture is necessary to achieve sustainable goals. Currently, there is little information available on this topic for semi-arid region. On the other hand, the impact of climate change on the yield and quality traits of triticale is relatively poorly studied, especially for new/modern cultivars.

As a result of the above, the aims of the present study were to compare the impact of the cultivation system (organic and conventional) on the yield and qualitative characteristics of triticale grains (protein content and specific gravity) and to identify the most suitable cultivars. The working hypothesis was that the tested cultivars could present different responses to the cropping systems and meteorological conditions in the study area frequently affected by drought. Through their applicative side, the results obtained could convince farmers in semi-arid regions to cultivate triticale cultivars that would bring them production and quality gains.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field experiment and tested material

The two experimental fields were organized at Agricultural Research and Development Station (ARDS) Șimnic, according to the randomized block method with three repetitions, both organic and conventional systems for three consecutive growing seasons (2021/2022, 2022/2023, and 2023/2024). Plot size was 7.5 × 1.5 m, with 12 rows per plot at a distance of 12.5 cm. The average grain yield per plot was calculated after harvesting the middle eight rows of each plot (7.5 m²). The soil was reddish preluvosol with the following characteristics: humus content of 2.7%, total nitrogen 0.073%, available phosphorus soluble in the ammonium acetate lactate (PAL) solution 52 mg.kg^-1, available potassium soluble in the ammonium acetate lactate (KAL) solution 127 mg.kg^-1, and soil reaction (pH) 5.6.

ARDS Șimnic is located in Oltenia Plain at 44°19’N and 23°48’E, and 182 m altitude. Numerous studies indicate that in the semi-arid climate of southwestern Romania, corresponding to the Oltenia Plain, drought is one of the main climatic hazards in the region, this being considered the second most drought-affected region in Romania, after the Bărăganului Plain (Angearu et al. 2020).

The experimental factors were:

• Cultivars: the eight triticale cultivars presented in Table 1;

• Cropping systems: organic and conventional;

• Meteorological condition of three consecutive growing seasons (2021/2022, 2022/2023, and 2023/2024).

Table 1
Tested triticale cultivars.

Cultivar	Year of registration	Provenance
Titan	1998	NARDI Fundulea
Haiduc	2006	NARDI Fundulea
Negoiu	2012	NARDI Fundulea
Oda FD	2013	NARDI Fundulea
Pisc	2014	NARDI Fundulea
Tulnic	2017	NARDI Fundulea
Zori	2020	NARDI Fundulea
Zvelt	2020	NARDI Fundulea

The precipitation regime for the three growing seasons was different. Thus, the 2021/2022 season was characterized as dry between November–April and during the grain filling period (June), the 2022/2023 season was dry during the sowing-emergence (October) and intensive growth-flowering stages (April–May), while the 2023/2024 season was dry for most of the year (Fig. 1). In general, in all three growing seasons the average monthly temperatures exceeded the multi-annual average, less during the intensive growth-flowering (April–May) and grain filling periods (June) of the 2022/2023 season (Fig. 2).

Figure 1
The precipitation (mm) of the region (2021–2024 growing seasons).

Figure 2
The average monthly temperatures (°C) of the region (2021–2024 growing seasons).

The main agrotechnical treatments and plant protection products used in each cropping system are presented in Table 2.

Table 2
Crop systems management in the cultivation of triticale: differences between organic and conventional.

Specification	Conventional	Organic
Fertilization	200 kg·ha-1 of complex fertilizers (NPK 20:20:0) were applied in pre-sowing and ammonium nitrate (33.5% total nitrogen a.s.)— 200 kg·ha-1 in the beginning of vegetation	None
Weed control	MUSTANG (florasulam 6.25 g·L-1 + 2.4 D EHE 300 g·L-1 a.s.)— 0.5 L·ha-1,Axial 050 EC (50 g·L-1 pinoxaden 12.5 g·L-1 cloquintocet—mexil a.s.)—0.75 L·ha-1, applied in 11–14 BBCH	None,mechanical weed control was carried out, by hoeing, before emergence and after the beginning of vegetation (12–13 BBCH)
Plant protection	DECIS EXPERT 100 EC (deltamethrin 50 g·L-11 a.s.)—0.15 L·ha-1, applied in 52–54 BBCH	None

Preceding crops

In the organic system, the preceding crop was peas, while in the conventional system it was maize (in 2021/2022 and 2023/2024) and rapeseed (in 2022/2023).

Sowing was done in the last decade of October, and harvesting was done at full maturity (89–92 BBCH), respectively in the last decade of July, in both cropping systems and for each growing season.

Calculation and statistical analysis

Coefficients of Sielianinow (K) were calculated according to Eq. 1 (Skowera et al. 2014):

$𝐾=\frac{P}{0.1 \sum \mathrm{t}}$ (1)

where: P: sum of monthly precipitation (mm); Σt: sum of monthly daily temperatures (°C).

The hydrothermal conditions described according to the Sielianinow’s coefficient showed that, during the spring–summer growing season in 2022, they were humid and optimal in May and June, and extremely dry and dry in June and July. In 2023, compared to the other years of the study, the hydrothermal conditions in April, May, and June were the most favorable for the cultivation of triticale, and in July they were dry. In 2024, only hydrothermal conditions in May were optimal for triticale cultivation, the rest were dry (July), relatively dry (April), and very dry (June, July) (Table 3).

Table 3
The Sielianinow’s coefficient during the spring–summer growing seasons.

Year	April	May	June	July
2022	2.03 h	1.42 o	0.14 ed	0.71 d
2023	1.77 rh	1.23 rd	3.19 eh	1.17 rd
2024	0.55 vd	0.72 d	0.58 vd	0.52 vd
Multiannual average	1.22 rd	1.48 o	1.30 rd	0.95 d

• ed: extremely dry; vd: very dry; d: dry; rd: relatively dry; o: optimal; rh: relatively humid; h: humid; eh: extremely humid.

Grain yields were determined for each plot and converted into tons per hectare at 14% moisture. Grain protein content, thousand-grain weight, and test weight were determined using the automatic instrument Infratec Grain Analyzer 1225 (FOSS, Hilleroed, Denmark).

The data obtained were statistically analyzed using the three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) method in the MINITAB 22.2.2 Statistical Software (2025), and the differences between means were evaluated by Tukey’s test at a level of significance of p < 0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis of variance

The very diverse weather conditions in the three years of experimentation, as well as the testing in two cropping systems (conventional and organic), allowed a good appreciation of the behavior of the triticale cultivars tested under field conditions.

In this study, the results of three-way ANOVA for all examined traits showed significant differences for cultivar (C), cropping system (CS) and year (Y), as well as for all interactions between these factors, except for the interaction C × CS × Y for grain yield (p < 0.05). The most important source of variation according to η² for all examined traits was CS (Table 4).

Table 4
Three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) according to the factors (cultivar, cropping system, and year) for grain yield, thousand-grain weight, protein content, and test weight.

Source	df	Grain yield			Thousand-grain weight			Protein content			Test weight
		Mean square	η 2		Mean square	η 2		Mean square	η 2		Mean square	η 2
C	7	2.801***	0.48		34.54***	1.28		3.518***	0.50		9.54***	0.41
CS	1	524.754***	88.79		2,256.25***	83.23		572.406***	82.37		2,182.45***	94.66
Y	2	56.913***	9.63		99.75***	3.68		1.318*	0.18		57.00***	2.47
C × CS	7	1.988***	0.33		8.82**	0.33		1.676***	0.24		19.59***	0.84
C × Y	14	0.551*	0.09		20.82***	0.77		1.850***	0.26		4.87***	0.21
CS × Y	2	3.153***	0.53		277.00***	10.22		112.461***	16.18		26.01***	1.12
C × CS × Y	14	0.531 ns	0.08		11.93***	0.44		1.410***	0.20		4.94***	0.21
Error	96	0.300	0.05		2.02	0.08		0.281	0.04		1.01	0.04
Total	143

• ^*
  significant at p < 0.05;
• ^**
  significant at p < 0.01;
• ^***
  significant at p < 0.001; ns: non significant; C; cultivar; CS: cropping system; Y: year; df: degree of freedom.
• ^ns
  non significant; C; cultivar; CS: cropping system; Y: year; df: degree of freedom.

These results showed that differences in crop management for conventional and organic systems regarding growing conditions and nutrient availability affect the yield and quality of triticale crop. Dumbravă et al. (2016) reported that a key agrotechnical factor for grain yield and quality, which allows farmers to utilize the production potential of triticale, is mineral fertilization, with a special emphasis on nitrogen use.

In addition to crop management, meteorological conditions in the study years had an important effect on triticale yield and test weight, being the second determining factor (Table 4). These results confirm the opinion of other researchers who show that triticale yield is strongly modified by the cropping system, year, and environment (Janczak-Pieniazek 2023, Janczak-Pieniazek and Kaszuba 2024).

Grain yield

On average, the highest yields were obtained by the new cultivars Zvelt (6 t.ha^-1) and Zori (5.8 t.ha^-1), followed by Tulnic (5.49 t.ha^-1) and Pisc (5.44 t.ha^-1), and the lowest yield by the old cultivar Titan (4.75 t.ha^-1). The cultivars tested achieved an average yield of 7.29 t.ha^-1 in conventional system and 3.47 t.ha^-1 in organic system (the decrease being -52.4% compared to conventional system (Fig. 3).

Figure 3
The effect of cultivar, cropping system, and year on the grain yield*.

The highest average production (6.40 t.ha^-1) was obtained in 2022, when hydrothermal conditions during the intense growth-flowering and most of the grain filling period (April–May) were favorable to the crop, with higher precipitation and lower temperatures, but close to the multi-annual average. Voica et al. (2023) confirmed that climatic conditions during this period influence the number of fertile florets, number and weight of grains in the year, and, ultimately, grain yield.

The significant interaction between the experimental factors C × CS highlighted the fact that the highest grain yields were obtained when the cultivar Zvelt (8.25 t.ha^-1 followed by Zori (7.73 t.ha^-1) and Pisc (7.61 t.ha^-1) were cultivated in conventional system, and for organic system, the best yields, but statistically insignificant compared to the rest of the cultivars, were obtained by the cultivars Zori (3.86 t.ha^-1) and Zvelt (3.75 t.ha^-1).

Several researchers have reported the superiority of the grain yield of modern cereal cultivars compared to old cultivars, including in organic system (Dunăreanu et al. 2023, Voica et al. 2023), confirming that the genetic progress for yield obtained through breeding programs that work in conventional system is partially reflected in organic system (Marinciu et al. 2022).

Thousand-grain weight

Thousand-grain weight is determined by the morphological characteristics of the grains (width, length, surface area). This is an agronomic trait with a direct impact on the yield but also on the bulk density of the grains, influencing the quality of grinding and even baking (Janczak-Pieniazek 2023).

In this study, the highest average value was obtained in the Negoiu cultivar (43.50 g), and the lowest value in the Zori cultivar (39.50 g) (Fig. 4). The average value obtained in conventional system was 46.08 g, while in organic system it was 38.17 g, a decrease of -17.2% compared to conventional system. This result is in line with the study by Janczak-Pieniazek and Kaszuba (2024), which showed that fertilization with N significantly influenced the thousand-grain weight. Triticale harvested in 2022 (43.75 g) had a significantly higher thousand-grain weight compared to 2024 and 2023 (Fig. 4), due to more favorable hydrothermal conditions from April and May. The significant interaction between C × CS × Y highlighted the fact that the maximum thousand-grain weight was obtained by the Zvelt cultivar (52 g), in conventional system in 2024, and the minimum thousand-grain weight was obtained in the Zori cultivar (31 g) in organic system in 2024.

Figure 4
The effect of cultivar, cropping system, and year on thousand-grain weight*.

Protein content

According to Sukhanberdina et al. (2022), protein content is one of the most important parameters that determine the technological quality and nutritional value of triticale grains.

For the protein content of triticale grains, the highest average value was obtained in the Tulnic cultivar (13.67%), followed by Titan (13.43%), and Zori (13.25%), and the lowest value in the Negoiu (12.58%), Haiduc (12.50%) and Pisc (12.50%) cultivars (Fig. 5).

Figure 5
The effect of cultivar, cropping system, and year on protein content*.

The average value obtained for protein content in conventional system was 14.99%, while in organic system it was 11%, a decrease of -26.7% compared to conventional system. This difference is due to the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in the conventional systems, which are better absorbed by plants. These findings are aligned with the results of Stępniewska et al. (2024), who show that in organic system, in which it is not possible to control the quality by providing readily available nitrogen, precipitation, temperature, and cultivar adaptation to habitat conditions are of great importance regarding the protein content of cereal grains. Also, other researchers have confirmed that the protein content of triticale grains strongly depends on the cropping system (Dumbravă et al. 2016, Janczak-Pieniazek 2023, Janczak-Pieniazek and Kaszuba 2024) and on the year and genotype (Dziki et al. 2023). Moreover, they reported the inverse relationship between protein content and yield.

The higher protein content in triticale harvested in 2023 (13.14%) was associated with favorable hydrothermal conditions in April and May, which favored nitrogen accumulation in the plant, but also with hydrothermal conditions in June that influenced the deposition of protein substances in the grains.

The significant interaction between the experimental factors C × CS × Y highlighted the fact that the maximum protein content was obtained in the cultivars Tulnic (17.4%), Titan (17.3%) and Zori (17.2%) in conventional system in 2022, and the minimum protein content was obtained in the cultivars Pisc (8.7%) and Haiduc (8.6%) in organic system in 2022.

In Romania, there is no official protein content for triticale, but it must be at least 11%, compared to wheat intended for baking (NCGCS 2017). Therefore, the average results obtained in our study confirm that by cultivating the most suitable triticale cultivars, even in organic system, a raw material that meets the requirements of the bakery industry can be obtained.

Test weight

Test weight is another quality parameter that plays a key role in the grain trade. In Romania, there is no official test weight for triticale, but it must be at least 65 kg.hl^-1 to obtain grade no. I and at least 62 kg.hl^-1 for grade no. II in Canada (CGC 2024).

In this study, the cultivar Zvelt (68.63 kg.hl^-1) followed by Zori (67.93 kg.hl^-1) obtained the highest average values for test weight, while Titan (66.70 kg.hl^-1) and Pisc (66.47 kg.hl^-1) obtained the lowest values. An average value of 71.25 kg.hl^-1 was obtained in conventional system and 63.46 kg.hl^-1 in organic system. Cultivation of triticale in organic system led to a decrease in test weight by -10.8% compared to conventional system.

Triticale harvested in 2023 (68.58 kg.hl^-1) had a significantly higher test weight compared to 2024 and 2022 (Fig. 6), due to more favorable hydrothermal conditions during the grain-filling period (May–June). Voica et al. (2023) confirmed that the amount of precipitation during the grain-filling period influences grain weight. Several researchers have reported variations in the test weight of triticale depending on genotype, year (Stoyanov 2020) but also nitrogen fertilization (Lalević et al. 2022), which was confirmed in our study.

Figure 6
The effect of cultivar, cropping system, and year on test weight*.

The significant interaction between the experimental factors C × CS × Y highlighted the fact that the maximum test weight was obtained by Zori (74.6 kg.hl^-1), in conventional system in 2024, and the minimum test weight was obtained by Tulnic (60.4 kg.hl^-1 in organic system in 2024.

CONCLUSION

The present study is in line with the current trends of the European Union that promote sustainable agriculture and underline the need to select the most suitable cultivars for agricultural practice under different technological and environmental conditions.

We have shown that by cultivating triticale in organic system, a raw material can be obtained that meets the requirements of the industry, in relation to protein content and test weight. Thus, the modern cultivar Zvelt stood out for its high yield (3.75 t.ha^-1), high protein content (11.3%), and the highest test weight (64.8 kg.hl^-1) in the organic system.

This knowledge may be useful to triticale farmers and processors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To Agricultural Research and Development Station Șimnic for support during the research.

• How to cite:
  Bonea, D., Dunăreanu, I.C., Constantinescu, E. and Botu, M. (2026). Impact of cropping systems and year on yield and grain quality of triticale grown in a semi-arid region. Bragantia, 85, e20250122. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.20250122
• FUNDING
  Not applicable.
• DECLARATION OF USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TOOLS
  Not applicable.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

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Edited by

• Section Editor:
  Gabriel Constantino Blain https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8832-7734

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  05 Dec 2025
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  20 June 2025
• Accepted
  16 Sept 2025