Antimicrobial activity of nine essential oils against Aeromonas spp. isolated from tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum Cuvier, 1816)Abstract
The use of natural products with antimicrobial activity is an effective and sustainable alternative for the prevention, treatment, and/or control of diseases in aquaculture. The objective of this study was to determine the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of nine essential oils (EOs) against strains of Aeromonas jandaei and Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum). Essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation and their composition by gass chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Antimicrobial activity of the nine essential oils was evaluated based on the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC), using the microdilution method, and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC). The major components identified in EO of Croton sacaquinha, Cymbopogon nardus, Curcuma longa, Lippia origanoides, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum micranthum, Piper hispidum e Piper marginatum were β-selinene (14.5%), geraniol (53.3%), ar-turmerone (30.2%), carvacrol (43.3%), menthol (88.5%), methyl chavicol (33.9%), piperitone oxide (36.2%), γ-terpinene (37.1%) and δ-3-carene (13.1%), respectively. The EOs of L. origanoides (9.2 mg·mL−1), C. nardus (10 mg·mL−1), M. arvensis, and P. marginatum (15 mg·mL−1) exhibited the most pronounced antimicrobial activity, whereas all essential oils tested demonstrated bactericidal activity against Aeromonas strains.
Keywords:
minimum inhibitory concentration; natural products; fish; bacterium isolates
Resumo
A utilização de produtos naturais com atividade antimicrobiana configura-se como uma alternativa eficaz e sustentável para a prevenção, tratamento e/ou controle de doenças na aquicultura. O presente estudo teve como objetivo determinar a composição química e atividade antimicrobiana de nove óleos essenciais (OEs) frente a cepas de Aeromonas jandaei e Aeromonas hydrophila isoladas de tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum). Os óleos essenciais foram obtidos por hidrodestilação e analisados por cromatografia gasosa acoplada a espectrometria de massa. A atividade antimicrobiana de nove OEs foi avaliada com base na determinação da Concentração Inibitória Mínima (CIM), pelo método de microdiluição em caldo, e da Concentração Bactericida Mínima (CBM). Os componentes majoritários identificados nos OEs de Croton sacaquinha, Cymbopogon nardus, Curcuma longa, Lippia origanoides, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum micranthum, Piper hispidum e Piper marginatum foram β-selineno (14,5%), geraniol (53,3%), ar-turmerona (30,2%), carvacrol (43,3%), mentol (88,5%) metil chavicol (33,9%), óxido de piperitona (36,2%), γ-terpineno (37,1%), e δ-3-careno (13,1%), respectivamente. Os OEs de L. origanoides (9,2 mg.ml-1), C. nardus (10 mg.ml-1), M. arvensis e P. marginatum (15 mg.ml-1) apresentaram atividade antimicrobiana mais expressiva; enquanto todos os OEs testados apresentaram atividade bactericida frente às cepas de Aeromonas.
Palavras-chave:
concentração inibitória mínima; produtos naturais; peixe; isolados bacterianos
1. Introduction
Aquaculture in Brazil has shown historical growth, following a global trend, with production reaching approximately 871 thousand tons in 2024 (FAO, 2025). The activity in the country is mainly focused on fish farming, with tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) being the most cultivated species, accounting for 74.8% of total production, followed by tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), the most cultivated native fish, with 18.1% of the total produced in 2024 (MPA, 2025).
Although described as a species highly resistant to low oxygen concentrations, easily adapted to commercial feeds, and possessing high market value (Valenti et al., 2021), a decline in its production has been observed in recent years (Peixe BR, 2026). Meneses et al. (2023) report that infectious diseases are among the main limiting factors for aquaculture development, causing significant economic losses. The continuous intensification of production and high stocking densities contribute to the emergence of opportunistic pathogens in tambaqui farming (Ariede et al., 2022), particularly in situations involving failures or the absence of biosecurity measures, which are directly associated with increased occurrence, severity, and duration of disease outbreaks in cultured stocks (Aly and Fathi, 2024).
Among the bacteria that cause diseases in farmed fish, the genus Aeromonas stands out, comprising bacteria widely distributed in aquatic environments (Azzam-Sayuti et al., 2021). These bacteria are known for their hemolytic activity and biofilm formation, which constitute important virulence factors (Das et al., 2020). The genus includes motile, non-sporulating, Gram-negative rods belonging to the family Aeromonadaceae (Semwal et al., 2023). Numerous studies have documented the occurrence of aeromoniasis outbreaks associated with high mortality rates in commercial aquaculture systems worldwide. In this context, Elgendy et al. (2024) and Algammal et al. (2020) described episodes in tilapia farming operations in Egypt, while Mohanty et al. (2023) reported an outbreak with high daily mortality rates in carp culture systems in India.
Aeromonas hydrophila is frequently reported as a causative agent of hemorrhagic septicemia, known as Motile Aeromonas Septicemia (MAS), which affects fish with compromised immune systems (Carnevali et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2020). However, in recent years, mass mortalities of farmed fish have also been associated with other Aeromonas species, such as A. jandaei (Assane et al., 2021a). In Brazil, infections caused by A. jandaei have been reported in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus 1758) by Dong et al. (2017) and Assane et al. (2021a), in pirarucu (Arapaima gigas Schinz, 1822) by Proietti-Júnior et al. (2021), and in tambaqui by Pessoa et al. (2020) and Pellin et al. (2023). Sebastião et al. (2022) reported the prevalence of Aeromonas isolates from asymptomatic farmed tambaqui, which exhibited multidrug resistance profiles, highlighting the risks associated with the indiscriminate prophylactic use and systemic administration of these antimicrobials in aquaculture systems in the region.
Mutation and horizontal gene transfer mechanisms have raised concerns about antibiotic resistance in aquaculture, prompting the search for alternative methods to control bacterial diseases (Silva et al., 2021). Essential oils (EOs), which are natural mixtures of volatile substances and aromatic compounds (Sousa et al., 2023), have been widely used as bactericides, virucides, fungicides, and antiparasitic agents, also exhibiting anti-inflammatory, immunostimulant, anesthetic, and antioxidant properties (Santos et al., 2020; Brandão et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2022; Ghafarifarsani et al., 2023; Oliveira et al., 2024). Some of these oils are considered effective and low-toxicity alternatives (Dawood et al., 2022), which can be used alone or in combination with synthetic chemical compounds (Assane et al., 2021b; Jesus et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2022). EOs from certain botanical families have been recognized for their biological activity against various organisms and are already being tested in aquaculture as anesthetics and for the treatment of bacterial and parasitic infections (Brasil et al., 2019; Yazgan et al., 2019).
The antimicrobial activity of EOs from some species in the families Verbenaceae (Lippia origanoides), Piperaceae (Piper hispidum and Piper marginatum), Lamiaceae (Mentha arvensis), and Poaceae (Cymbopogon nardus) has already been evaluated in previous studies, showing in vitro antimicrobial activity against Aeromonas strains isolated from tambaqui (Majolo et al., 2019; Chagas et al., 2020; Gallani et al., 2020; Majolo et al., 2022). However, no studies have been found evaluating the antimicrobial action of EOs from Ocimum micranthum (Lamiaceae), Croton sacaquinha (Euphorbiaceae), and Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae) against Aeromonas spp. strains isolated from tambaqui. Therefore, this represents an important laboratory step for the selection of bioactive compounds with high antimicrobial efficacy for subsequent validation at the experimental scale with fish, thereby contributing to the reduction in the use of synthetic chemical compounds and promoting the development of more resilient and environmentally sustainable aquaculture systems (Kolygas et al., 2025).
This study aimed to determine the chemical composition, which may influence biological potential, and to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of nine EOs (Croton sacaquinha, Cymbopogon nardus, Curcuma longa, Lippia origanoides, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum micranthum, Piper hispidum and Piper marginatum) against Aeromonas jandaei and Aeromonas hydrophila strains isolated from tambaqui.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Collection of plant material and essential oil extraction
Leaves, inflorescences and/or rhizomes of Croton sacaquinha, Cymbopogon nardus, Curcuma longa, Lippia origanoides, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum micranthum, Piper hispidum and Piper marginatum were collected from mature plants belonging to the Medicinal Plant Collection of Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental, located in Manaus, AM, Brazil. The plant material was left to air dry at room temperature until constant weight was achieved.
Following this, the EO were extracted by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger apparatus. For each extraction, 500 g of dried leaves, inflorescences and/or rhizomes from each plant species were placed in a 12,000 mL round-bottom flask connected to a heating mantle, with distilled water added until the plant material was fully immersed. Once the heating mantle was activated and the EO began to distill, the process was considered to have started. At the end of the extraction, the volume of EO obtained was measured, collected, and stored in amber glass vials sealed with caps and stoppers, and kept frozen until chemical composition analysis.
2.2. Chemical composition of the essential oils
Samples of the EO from Croton sacaquinha, Cymbopogon nardus, Curcuma longa, Lippia origanoides, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum micranthum, Piper hispidum and Piper marginatum were sent to Embrapa Agroindústria de Alimentos, where fractionation and chemical characterization were performed using gas chromatography on an Agilent 6890 system coupled with an Agilent 5973N mass selective detector, operating in electron ionization mode (70 eV).
According to methodology described by Chagas et al. (2020), for component separation, an HP5-MS capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) was used with a temperature program from 60 to 240 ºC, increasing at 3ºC/min. Samples (1.0 μL) were injected in split mode (1:100) into an injector maintained at 250 ºC. Helium was used as the carrier gas (1.0 mL·min−1). For relative quantification (area %) of the EO components, a gas chromatograph Agilent 6890N equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) set at 280 ºC was used, along with an HP5 capillary column (30 m × 0.32 mm × 0.25 μm), and hydrogen as the carrier gas (1.5 mL·min−1). The remaining analytical parameters were the same as described above.
Constituent identification for each oil was carried out by comparing the obtained mass spectra with those in the Wiley mass spectral library (6th edition), as well as by comparing the calculated retention indices with data from the literature (Van den Dool and Kratz, 1963; Adams, 2007). Quantitative data were obtained from peak areas using the FID, normalized with an internal standard (ethyl octanoate). All EO samples were analyzed in triplicate.
2.3. Antimicrobial activity of essential oils against Aeromonas strains
Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of C. sacaquinha, C. nardus, C. longa, L. origanoides, M. arvensis, O. basilicum, O. micranthum, P. hispidum, and P. marginatum was evaluated by determining the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and the Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC). One isolate of Aeromonas jandaei (A-08) and five isolates of Aeromonas hydrophila (A-30, A-34, A-37, A-38, and A-44) were used in this study. These isolates were obtained from juvenile tambaqui farmed in small-scale fish farms in the Metropolitan Region of Manaus (Amazonas, Brazil). For the assays, the strains were cultured in Trypticase Soy Broth (TSB, Difco) for 18 hours at 29 ºC.
The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was determined using the broth microdilution method, in accordance with the guidelines of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, 2003). A quantity of 3.2 g of each of nine EO was weighed, based on density calculation, and diluted in 50% v/v DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide). The mixture was then filtered, and 1 mL of the filtrate was diluted in 4 mL of Mueller-Hinton Broth (Difco), yielding a stock solution of 640,000 μg·mL−1. Briefly, 100 μL of Mueller-Hinton Broth (MHB) was dispensed into the wells of a 96-well microplate. Then, 100 μL of the EO stock solution was added to the first well, homogenized, and serially transferred to obtain final concentrations ranging from 320,000 to 5,000 μg·mL−1 for each EO. The initial bacterial inoculum was prepared with turbidity equivalent to 0.5 on the McFarland scale and diluted (1:1000) in Mueller-Hinton Broth. Then, 100 μL of the bacterial suspension was added to each well containing the EO or diluent. Plates were incubated at 29 ºC for 24 hours under aerobic conditions. A negative control, consisting of culture medium only, and a positive control, consisting of culture medium with inoculum, were also included in the assays. In addition, an antibiotic (oxytetracycline) was used as a positive control against the bacteria. All assays were performed in triplicate.
For the determination of the Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC), a 10 μL aliquot from each well was plated on Mueller–Hinton agar (Difco). After 24 h of incubation at 29 °C, the MBC was defined as the lowest concentration of EO or antibiotic required to kill the bacterial inoculum.
3. Results
Using chemical analyses, 94.5% of the chemical components of the EO from C. sacaquinha, 100% from C. nardus, 99.9% from C. longa, 99.8% from L. origanoides, 100% from Mentha arvensis, 99.3% from O. basilicum, 89.6% from Ocimum micranthum, 94.9% from Piper hispidum, and 98.0% from Piper marginatum were identified. Table 1 presents the main components identified in each of the EO evaluated in this study, along with their Relative Area and Linear Retention Index.
The main components of the EO from C. sacaquinha were β-selinene (14.5%), α-cedrene (12.8%) and allo-aromadendrene (6.5%) among 59 identified compounds. For C. nardus, the main constituents were geraniol (53.3%), geranial (18.0%) and neral (13.4%) among 20 identified compounds. Ar-turmerone (30.2%), α-turmerone and curlone (13.7% each) were the main components in C. longa, which had 35 identified compounds. For L. origanoides, carvacrol (43.3%), p-cymene (12.0%) and γ-terpinene (9.5%) were the main components among 38 identified compounds. Menthol (88.5%), isomenthone (3.6%) and menthone (2.9%) were the main components in M. arvensis among 20 identified compounds. For O. basilicum, the main constituents were methyl chavicol (33.9%), linalool (21.4%) and 1,8-cineole (12.7%) among 33 compounds. In O. micranthum, the predominant components were piperitone oxide (36.2%), limonene (18.8%) and menthol (8.4%) among 50 compounds. In P. hispidum, γ-terpinene (37.1%), α-terpinene (17.0%) and terpinolene (8.0%) were the main constituents among 24 compounds. For P. marginatum, the major component were δ-3-carene (13.1%), propiopiperone (8.0%) and (E)-caryophyllene (6.8%), among 47 compounds.
Regarding the chemical classes, oxygenated monoterpenes predominated among the identified components in the EO from C. nardus (96.4%), M. arvensis (96.8%), P. hispidum (59.1%), L. origanoides (58.2%), O. micranthum (55.7%) and O. basilicum (46.4%). In C. longa, oxygenated sesquiterpenes were the most prevalent (63.6%), while in C. sacaquinha and P. marginatum, sesquiterpenes dominated.
The EO showed MIC values ranging from 320,000 to 10,000 μg·mL−1 against A. jandaei and 320,000 to 9,200 μg·mL−1 against A. hydrophila (Table 2). MBC values ranged from 320,000 to 10,000 μg·mL−1 against A. jandaei and A. hydrophila (Table 3) for the nine EO evaluated. Tables 2 and 3 also present the results for oxytetracycline, which showed MIC values ranging from 0.23 to 30 μg·mL−1, and MBC values ranging from 0.47 to 30 μg·mL−1.
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) in μg·mL−1 of the essential oils from Croton sacaquinha, Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum micranthum, Curcuma longa, Cymbopogon nardus, Lippia origanoides, Piper hispidum, Piper marginatum, Mentha arvensis, and the antimicrobial agent oxytetracycline against Aeromonas jandaei and Aeromonas hydrophila strains.
Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) in μg·mL−1 of the essential oils from Croton sacaquinha, Cymbopogon nardus, Curcuma longa, Lippia origanoides, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum micranthum, Piper hispidum e Piper marginatum, and the antimicrobial agent oxytetracycline against Aeromonas jandaei and Aeromonas hydrophila strains.
4. Discussion
Essential oils can be defined as mixtures of various low molecular weight, lipophilic, aromatic, and volatile compounds, usually consisting of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and phenylpropenes, as well as their oxygenated derivatives: alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones, phenols, and oxides (Reichling, 2020). They have the ability to inhibit the growth of a wide range of pathogens due to the presence of these natural substances produced by plant organs. Their unique aroma and bioactive properties depend essentially on their constituents (Swamy et al., 2016).
The chemical composition of EO is primarily determined by genetic factors; however, certain biotic and abiotic environmental factors may lead to significant changes in the production and accumulation of these constituents, as they redirect metabolic pathways and promote the biosynthesis of different compounds (Soares et al., 2019). According to Shankar et al. (2021), the mechanism of action of each EO is directly linked to its chemical composition.
Croton sacaquinha, also known as sacaquinha or saca-rabo, is a Brazilian native plant found mainly in the Cerrado and Northeastern regions. Adaptable to various soil types, it is valued in folk medicine for its anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties. As an indigenous species, few studies have explored the chemical profile of its EO. Chagas et al. (2016) analyzed the essential oil obtained from this species, using plants from the same region as the present study, and identified sesquiterpene germacrene (12.0%) as the major compound, while our study found β-selinene (14.5%), also a sesquiterpene, as the most abundant constituent. Similarly, Lopes et al. (2003) found β-elemene as the main component in the same region.
Cymbopogon nardus EO in the present study had geraniol as its main monoterpene (53.3%), a result consistent with Santos et al. (2017), who found it at 33.7% in EO of plants grown in Lavras (Minas Gerais, Brazil). However, studies in other countries show different profiles; for instance, Bayala et al. (2020) reported citronellal (33.06%) as the main component in oil extracted in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), while Caballero-Gallardo et al. (2021), using a similar method in Bucaramanga (Colombia), found citronellal (25.3%), citronellol (17.9%), and geraniol (11.6%) as the main components.
Curcuma longa (turmeric) is a perennial rhizomatous herb native to Southeast Asia, widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions (Dosoky and Setzer, 2018). Unlike the other species, C. longa EO in this study showed high chemical consistency with reports from other Brazilian regions, with ar-turmerone, α-turmerone, and curlone (β-turmerone) as the major compounds, in similar proportions as reported by Guimarães et al. (2020) in Jaborandi (Bahia). These authors emphasized the EO’s chemical stability as reported in the literature. Similar results were reported by Camilo et al. (2020) in Ceará and Teles et al. (2019) in Maranhão, both in Northeastern Brazil.
The major components found in Lippia origanoides EO in the present study were the same as those reported by Majolo et al. (2022) for the essential oil of L. origanoides A, with only minor variations observed in the concentrations of the three major components, carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene. In contrast, Brasil et al. (2019), who analyzed L. origanoides oil from plants cultivated in Manaus and identified thymol and p-cymene as predominant. This differentiation suggests that the authors investigated the genotype L. origanoides B (syn. Lippia sidoides), which may account for the variation in essential oil composition observed for the same species cultivated within the same region. In contrast, Sousa et al. (2020) identified camphor, camphene, and β-bisabolene as the main constituents of the same essential oil, compounds that differ from those reported for both subtypes of L. origanoides in the Amazon region, in plants cultivated in Montes Altos, Maranhão, Brazil.
Despite chemical variations, the Mentha arvensis EO described here had menthol, isomenthone, and menthone as its main constituents, similar to the findings of Chagas et al. (2020) with plants from the same region. Interestingly, these components have also been reported as major in various studies across different regions (Khan et al., 2019; Iseppi et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2023).
Ocimum basilicum (basil) is one of the most important medicinal plants of the family Lamiaceae and, in addition to its culinary use, exhibits anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and antibacterial properties. Minor variations in relative percentages have been reported; however, a consistent pattern of major constituents—particularly methyl chavicol and linalool—has been observed in the essential oil of this species across different geographic regions (Monfort et al., 2018; Aghamirzaei et al., 2024), in agreement with the findings of the present study. In contrast, Alimi et al. (2022) identified estragole (80.87%), followed by linalool (16.12%), as the predominant compound from plants cultivated in northeastern Tunisia.
Differently from the Ocimum micranthum EO evaluated here, Sousa et al. (2023) reported eugenol (42.7%) and elemicin (13.2%) as the main constituents in plants from Fortaleza (Ceará, Brazil). Silva et al. (2004) previously reported eugenol as the major compound in oils from the same region, supporting the claim that EO composition tends to be more similar within the same geographical area. Zeppenfeld et al. (2019) also found a different profile for O. micranthum EO in Santa Maria (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil), with methyl chavicol and linalool as the major compounds, distinct from both the current study in Amazonas and the study in Fortaleza.
Similarly, when comparing the composition of Piper hispidum oil in the present study with that reported by Majolo et al. (2019), both from the Amazon region and obtained using the same methodology, there was similarity in the main component γ-terpinene (34.1% and 27.3%, respectively), but differences in the second and third most abundant components: α-terpinene (17.0%) and terpinolene (8.0%) in this study; p-cymene (14.0%) and α-terpinene (12.0%) in Majolo et al. (2019). Those authors also evaluated the composition of Piper marginatum EO, describing the same major components in similar amounts as reported here. Ayres et al. (2023), when investigating the chemical composition of P. marginatum EO from the same region, also reported δ-3-carene as the major constituent, followed by (E)-β-ocimene, which in the present study accounted for only 5.1% of the total composition.
Santana et al. (2016) and Jaramillo-Colorado et al. (2019) studied P. hispidum EO composition in Panama and Colombia, respectively, and found distinct major components, dillapiole (57.7%) and limonene (17.2%), using the same extraction method as the present study. The chemical composition of P. marginatum EO obtained here differed from that reported by Santana et al. (2015), who used plants from different locations in Rondônia (Brazil) and found (E)-methyl isoeugenol (27.08%), (E)-anethole (23.98%), and (Z)-methyl isoeugenol (12.01%) as major constituents. These results reinforce the idea that plant geographical origin directly affects EO composition, influenced by soil type, environmental conditions, plant age, and developmental stage (Santiago et al., 2016; El Yaagoubi et al., 2021). Therefore, approaches such as the selection of stable chemotypes and genotypes (Munda et al., 2020; Sakar et al., 2023), the control of cultivation and seasonal harvesting conditions (Cheng et al., 2024), and the systematic chemical characterization of each batch (Klūga et al., 2021) have been highlighted as promising alternatives to ensure greater consistency and effectiveness of these essentials oils. Additionally, the application of nanotechnologies, including the use of nanoparticles and nanoemulsions, may enhance the stability and bioavailability of bioactive compounds, thereby contributing to increased efficacy of essential oils in the treatment of bacterial diseases in tambaqui (Mathews et al., 2023).
In the present study, all essential oils tested demonstrated in vitro antimicrobial activity against Aeromonas strains. However, C. nardus, L. origanoides, M. arvensis and P. marginatum EO showed the most pronounced effects against the Aeromonas strains. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values did not differ between A. jandaei and A. hydrophila strains for these essential oils.
L. origanoides EO showed the best result, with MIC of 9,200 µg·mL−1 against A. hydrophila strains A-30 and A-38, and 10,000 µg·mL−1 against the A. jandaei strain (A-08) and A. hydrophila strains A-34, A-37, and A-44. Recent studies have shown strong antimicrobial activity of L. origanoides EO against various bacterial strains, contrasting with our findings. These differences may also be attributed to variations in major components, namely thymol and carvacrol (Cáceres et al., 2020; Gómez-Sequeda et al., 2020; Martínez et al., 2023).
Furlani et al. (2021) reported a similar chemical composition for L. origanoides EO from the Brazilian Northeast, yet found moderate antimicrobial activity, with MIC of 560 µg·mL−1 against Staphylococcus aureus. The efficacy of EO may rely on individual mechanisms of its compounds or synergistic effects among them, making it difficult to determine exact modes of action (Matté et al., 2023). Bacterial species and environmental origin of strains also play a role. The strains used here were isolated from farmed tambaqui, and water may act as a vector for spreading resistance and virulence genes (Pérez-Etayo et al., 2020).
Majolo et al. (2022), studying Lippia species in the same region, described a similar composition for L. origanoides (type A: carvacrol 35.6%, p-cymene 15.7%, γ-terpinene 9.1%) and found stronger activity against Aeromonas strains from tambaqui (MIC: 260.4–833.3 µg·mL−1). This may suggest that Aeromonas strains are becoming more resistant to natural antimicrobials due to selective pressures (from medical, agricultural, and livestock practices), promoting the transfer of virulence factors that hinder the mechanisms of action of essential oils (Gomes et al., 2021).
Natural aquatic ecosystems, often the endpoint of terrestrial runoff, are recognized reservoirs for antimicrobial resistance and bacterial virulence genes (Chen et al., 2018). The resident microbiota, even without clinical relevance, can serve as a genetic pool for terrestrial microbes or enter anthropogenic cycles (Peterson and Kaur, 2018). Aeromonas spp. can acquire resistance mechanisms and spread them via horizontal gene transfer, making them suitable indicators for monitoring antimicrobial resistance in water (Canellas et al., 2021).
Another factor possibly associated with the lower antimicrobial effectiveness of L. origanoides EO in this study compared to Majolo et al. (2022) is temperature variation. Abiotic factors can modulate gene expression of bacterial virulence factors (Steinmann and Dersch, 2013; Yi et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2023). The recent record-high temperatures in the Amazon may have altered regulatory systems in Aeromonas, increasing resistance to EO components.
C. nardus EO showed MIC of 10,000 µg·mL−1 against A. jandaei and A. hydrophila. Wei and Wee (2013) reported strong antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of this species against bacterial strains isolated from different aquatic organisms in Malaysia, with MIC values ranging from 0.244 to 0.977 µg·mL−1. The substantial variation in the antimicrobial effectiveness of the same essential oil can be explained by differences in its chemical profile, as the study conducted in Malaysia identified citronellal as the major constituent (29.2%), whereas geraniol was the predominant component in the present study.
Geraniol is an acyclic monoterpenoid alcohol belonging to the class of terpenoids and occurs naturally in the essential oils of several plant species, such as citronella, lemongrass, lavender, and geranium, among others (Fajdek-Bieda et al., 2024). In addition to its widespread use in the perfumery and cosmetic industries, this compound exhibits antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities and has been shown to reduce biofilm formation (Lira et al., 2020). Guo et al. (2023) investigated the activity of geraniol in comparison with commonly used antimicrobials for the treatment of mastitis in dairy cows caused by bacterial infections. The authors reported that geraniol exhibited efficacy comparable to that of cephalexin and kanamycin, significantly inhibiting pathogenic bacteria without disrupting intestinal microbial communities. Moreover, no geraniol residues were detected in milk four days after treatment withdrawal, whereas antibiotic residues were still detected seven days after drug suspension.
Several studies have demonstrated the synergistic effect of geraniol in enhancing the activity of antimicrobials against resistant bacterial strains, mainly through the inhibition of bacterial efflux pumps, highlighting its potential as a promising antimicrobial adjuvant (Kim et al., 2022). Araújo et al. (2025) reported that the use of geraniol in combination with antibiotics was effective in reducing the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against Staphylococcus aureus strains. According to these authors, the absence or low intrinsic antibacterial activity may be considered a favorable characteristic for substances with synergistic antimicrobial effects, since ideal efflux pump inhibitors do not exhibit direct antibacterial activity. Therefore, the essential oil of C. nardus obtained in the present study demonstrates potential for use in association with antibiotics.
Kačániová et al. (2021) also reported weak antimicrobial activity of C. nardus essential oil against bacterial strains of different species isolated from fish, corroborating the findings of the present study. Despite the extensive characterization of its chemical composition, few studies have focused on evaluating the antimicrobial activity of C. nardus essential oil against bacterial strains, particularly Aeromonas spp., highlighting the need for further investigations involving this plant species.
The essential oil of P. marginatum exhibited an MIC of 15,000 µg·mL−1 against A. jandaei and A. hydrophila strains, with δ-3-carene identified as the major constituent. Majolo et al. (2019) evaluated the antimicrobial activity of essential oils from different Piper species against A. hydrophila strains also isolated from farmed tambaqui. In contrast to the present study, the authors reported strong to moderate antimicrobial activity of P. marginatum essential oil, with MIC values ranging from 234 to 2,500 µg·mL−1. Although both studies described a similar chemical composition for the essential oil of this species, its antimicrobial effectiveness against the A. hydrophila and A. jandaei strains tested in the present study was lower.
The essential oil of M. arvensis also exhibited an MIC of 15,000 µg·mL−1 against A. jandaei and A. hydrophila strains, with menthol as the major component. Chagas et al. (2020), when evaluating the antimicrobial activity of essential oils from several Mentha species cultivated in the Amazon region, reported the presence of the same compounds in proportions similar to those observed in the present study, with MIC values ranging from 1,250 to 10,000 µg·mL−1. Although these values were lower than those obtained in the present work, the authors also classified the antimicrobial activity of this essential oil as moderate to weak against Aeromonas strains isolated from tambaqui.
The essential oils of C. sacaquinha, C. longa, O. basilicum, O. micranthum, and P. hispidum evaluated in the present study exhibited weaker antimicrobial activity, with MIC values of 80,000 µg·mL−1 for A. jandaei and 160,000 to 320,000 µg·mL−1 for A. hydrophila. However, when considering the MBC/MIC ratio, the essential oils of these species demonstrated effective bactericidal activity, highlighting their potential for use in synergy with antimicrobials and their possible role in reducing the amount of drugs required to control pathogenic bacterial strains.
It can be concluded that, due to the wide diversity of metabolites present and their synergistic modes of action, essential oils represent a promising alternative for the treatment and control of bacterial diseases in aquaculture. The results obtained in this study demonstrated antibacterial activity of the essential oils of C. sacaquinha, C. nardus, C. longa, L. origanoides, M. arvensis, O. basilicum, O. micranthum, P. hispidum, and P. marginatum against A. jandaei and A. hydrophila strains, with bactericidal effects, indicating their potential use in combination with antimicrobials. This strategy may enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce the use of synthetic drugs in aquatic environments, and consequently minimize selective pressure for the emergence of resistant bacterial strains in aquaculture systems. Among the essential oils evaluated, Lippia origanoides exhibited the lowest MIC values, followed by Cymbopogon nardus, Mentha arvensis, and Piper marginatum. However, despite these promising findings, potential risks related to the toxicity of essential oils must be carefully considered prior to their recommendation for use in aquaculture. Future in vivo studies are required to assess the safety of the concentrations proposed herein, including their effects on zootechnical, physiological and immunological parameters of tambaqui, as well as potential impacts on non-target organisms, in order to validate both the efficacy and safety of these compounds under experimental conditions closer to field reality.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Amazonas - Fapeam (Edital n. 003/2020 - Painter) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq (316188/2023-9) for financial support and the productivity research grant awarded to E. C. Chagas.
Data Availability Statement
The research data analyzed in this study are not publicly available through any means.
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