Gynecological screenings and correction of reproductive disorders in cattle in Western KazakhstanAbstract
Reproductive efficiency is a critical factor determining the productivity and economic sustainability of dairy and beef cattle systems. Under the environmental, management, and feeding conditions of the West Kazakhstan region, postpartum reproductive disorders remain a significant veterinary challenge. This study presents the results of a comprehensive assessment of reproductive health in cattle, with emphasis on the prevalence and structure of major gynecological disorders and the applicability of diagnostic approaches under regional production conditions. The investigation was based on clinical, gynecological, rectal, ultrasonographic, and laboratory examinations, including biochemical and hormonal analyses. Endometritis, ovarian hypofunction, and follicular cysts were identified as the most frequently diagnosed reproductive pathologies and were associated with impaired reproductive performance. The findings demonstrate that early detection combined with targeted therapeutic and preventive interventions contributes to improved reproductive efficiency and reduced economic losses in cattle herds. The results may be used to support the development of regionally adapted veterinary strategies aimed at improving reproductive health and overall productivity of cattle in Western Kazakhstan.
Keywords:
cattle; reproductive health; endometritis; ovarian hypofunction; follicular cysts
Resumo
A eficiência reprodutiva é um fator crítico que determina a produtividade e a sustentabilidade econômica dos sistemas de produção de gado leiteiro e de corte. Sob as condições ambientais, de manejo e de alimentação da região oeste do Cazaquistão, os distúrbios reprodutivos pós-parto continuam a ser um desafio veterinário significativo. Este estudo apresenta os resultados de uma avaliação abrangente da saúde reprodutiva em bovinos, com ênfase na prevalência e estrutura dos principais distúrbios ginecológicos e na aplicabilidade de abordagens diagnósticas em condições de produção regional. A investigação baseou-se em exames clínicos, ginecológicos, retais, ultrassonográficos e laboratoriais, incluindo análises bioquímicas e hormonais. A endometrite, a hipofunção ovariana e os cistos foliculares foram identificados como as patologias reprodutivas mais frequentemente diagnosticadas e foram associados a prejuízos no desempenho reprodutivo. Os resultados demonstram que a detecção precoce, combinada com intervenções terapêuticas e preventivas específicas, contribui para melhorar a eficiência reprodutiva e reduzir as perdas econômicas nos rebanhos bovinos. Os resultados podem ser utilizados para subsidiar o desenvolvimento de estratégias veterinárias adaptadas regionalmente, visando à melhorar da saúde reprodutiva e da produtividade geral dos bovinos no oeste do Cazaquistão.
Palavras-chave:
bovinos; saúde reprodutiva; endometrite; hipofunção ovariana; cistos foliculares
1. Introduction
Reproductive performance directly affects the biological efficiency and economic viability of cattle production systems. Impaired fertility in dairy and beef herds is associated with prolonged calving intervals, increased days open, reduced milk yield, and lower calf output, ultimately resulting in substantial financial losses for producers. These relationships have been consistently documented across different production systems and climatic regions, highlighting reproduction as a central determinant of herd profitability and sustainability (Dash et al., 2016; Rutherford et al., 2016; Dolecheck et al., 2019; Braga Paiano et al., 2019). These issues are of particular importance for the West Kazakhstan region, where cattle production remains a core component of the agro-industrial sector and is strongly influenced by climate, feeding systems and housing conditions (Giordano et al., 2015; Toledo et al., 2017; Molina-Coto and Lucy, 2018; Pascottini et al., 2020).
Among the disorders most frequently encountered after calving are endometritis, ovarian hypofunction and follicular cysts. Their occurrence varies widely, with endometritis reported in 25-40% of cows, ovarian hypofunction in about 20-30%, and cystic changes in 10-12% of animals, depending on management practices and the level of veterinary supervision (Vergara et al., 2014; Šavc et al., 2016; Adnane et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2023). These diseases are usually multifactorial: imbalanced nutrition, inadequate housing, infectious agents, metabolic overload and stress all contribute to their development (Parikh et al., 2022).
Over the past decade, diagnostics and treatment methods have progressed notably. Wider use of ultrasonography, hormonal assays and microbiological testing has improved early detection, while treatment now more often combines hormonal therapy with immunomodulatory and physiotherapeutic approaches (Sarkar et al., 2016; Raketsky et al., 2021; Mimoune et al., 2021; Haddadi and Seifi, 2021). Increasing attention is also paid to prevention: improving feeding practices, maintaining an optimal microclimate, strengthening biosafety and applying biologically active feed additives have all been shown to reduce the risk of reproductive pathology (Baruselli et al., 2018; Cardoso Consentini et al., 2021). International experience confirms that the most effective results are achieved when veterinary, nutritional and management measures are integrated into a unified reproductive management system (Thatcher et al., 2001; Vasconcelos et al., 2018).
Despite extensive global literature on cattle reproductive disorders, there is limited region-specific research for Western Kazakhstan, where environmental stressors, feeding systems, and housing conditions differ substantially from those in intensively managed dairy regions. Existing studies do not provide a comprehensive assessment of the combined prevalence, diagnostic practices, risk factors, and treatment outcomes of reproductive pathologies under the specific conditions of this region. Limited region-specific evidence on the prevalence, structure, and determinants of postpartum reproductive disorders under the environmental and management conditions of Western Kazakhstan constrains the development of effective reproductive management strategies for local cattle herds. In response to this need, the present study provides a comprehensive evaluation of reproductive health in cattle in the region, identifies the dominant reproductive disorders and associated risk factors, and assesses diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive approaches applicable to regional production systems.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling
The study was conducted on dairy and beef cattle farms located in the West Kazakhstan region. At the initial screening stage, more than 250 cows aged 2 to 8 years and representing different physiological states were clinically examined. This preliminary examination was performed to assess general health status and identify animals eligible for further inclusion in the study.
Based on predefined inclusion criteria (absence of severe systemic disease, suitability for reproductive assessment, and availability of complete farm records), 250 animals were selected, of which 180 cows formed the main study group and 70 cows constituted the control group. These animals underwent comprehensive obstetric, gynecological, and clinical examinations.
A focused observational component of the study was carried out on 75 clinically healthy cows aged 3-6 years from the Umrali Ata farm, which served as a reference herd for evaluating baseline reproductive parameters. Additionally, obstetric and gynecological examinations were performed on 70 black-and-white cattle (heifers and adult cows) at the Amanat farm (Burlin District) to assess the prevalence of postpartum reproductive disorders under farm-specific conditions.
To evaluate reproductive performance associated with semen origin, insemination outcomes were analyzed across several farms in the region (Umrali Ata, Uzbekova, Khilnichenko and K, Esbol, and Zhantay). For this purpose, cows eligible for artificial insemination were assigned to two groups: an experimental group (n = 15) inseminated with domestic bull semen and a control group (n = 60) inseminated with imported bull semen. Group allocation was performed using stratified randomization, accounting for breed, parity, milk productivity, feeding system, housing conditions, and clinical reproductive status to ensure comparability between groups. Prior to insemination, all animals underwent standardized clinical, obstetric, and gynecological examinations to exclude somatic or reproductive disorders that could confound reproductive performance outcomes.
2.1.1. Semen origin and insemination procedure
As part of the study design, reproductive performance was compared between cows inseminated with domestic and imported bull semen. The comparison was conducted under field conditions on participating farms in the West Kazakhstan region.
Domestic semen was obtained from bulls bred and approved within the national breeding program of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Imported semen originated from foreign breeding centers (European origin) and was supplied through officially authorized distributors. All semen doses met standard quality requirements for artificial insemination, including sperm concentration, motility, and viability, as certified by the suppliers.
Artificial insemination was performed during detected or hormonally induced estrus by trained farm technicians following standard on-farm insemination procedures. Semen origin (domestic or imported) was assigned according to farm management decisions and availability and was incorporated into the study as a comparative factor. The effectiveness of insemination using semen from different origins was evaluated based on calving outcomes and calf birth weight, with results presented in Section 3.4.
2.2. Clinical examination
Clinical examinations were performed on all cows included in the study. General health status was evaluated by assessing body condition score, nutritional status, heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature. The condition of mucous membranes was assessed based on color and moisture, and behavioral responses, including appetite and general activity, were recorded.
Examination of the reproductive tract included visual inspection of the perineal region and assessment of vaginal discharge, edema, hyperemia, and other visible pathological changes. Reproductive status was further evaluated according to the characteristics of lochia, the progression of uterine involution, and clinical signs indicative of postpartum endometritis.
Vaginal examinations were conducted under aseptic conditions. The perineal area was cleansed with an antiseptic solution, and sterile disposable gloves and individual sterile vaginal specula were used for each animal. All examinations were carried out between 20 and 35 days postpartum. To minimize observer-related variability, all clinical assessments were performed by the same experienced veterinarian.
2.3. Ethical approval and regulatory framework
All procedures involving animals were conducted in accordance with internationally recognized animal welfare and veterinary research standards. The study protocol was approved by the Local Biological Ethics Committee of the KazNIVI branch of the West Kazakhstan Research Institute of Animal Health (protocol No. 7, dated August 29, 2025).
Animal handling, clinical examinations, and diagnostic procedures were performed in compliance with the principles outlined in the European Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals Used for Experimental and Other Scientific Purposes (COUNCIL OF EUROPE, 1986) and the national veterinary regulations of the Republic of Kazakhstan governing the use of animals in scientific research.
Veterinary diagnostic and gynecological examinations followed established clinical guidelines for bovine reproductive health assessment, including rectal palpation, vaginal examination, and evaluation of uterine and ovarian status, as defined by national veterinary diagnostic standards in force at the time of the study (Republic of Kazakhstan, 2020-2024). All procedures were carried out by trained veterinary specialists, with priority given to minimizing animal stress and ensuring animal welfare.
2.4. Rectal examination
Rectal examinations were conducted as part of the comprehensive reproductive assessment of cows included in the study. Diagnostic procedures involved palpation of the reproductive tract, evaluation of cervical tone, assessment of intrauterine fluid accumulation, detection of ovarian cysts, and assessment of uterine symmetry and contractility.
All examinations were performed by a qualified veterinary specialist with more than five years of experience in bovine reproductive diagnostics. The procedures were carried out in accordance with the ethical and regulatory framework described in Section 2.3. Sterile disposable gloves were used for each animal, and aseptic and antiseptic measures were strictly observed throughout the examination process.
Animal welfare considerations were prioritized during all procedures. Gentle fixation methods were applied to minimize stress, examinations were performed without causing pain, and mild sedation was used only when clinically justified.
2.5. Ultrasound diagnostics
Ultrasound examination was performed to assess the structural and functional status of the uterus and ovaries and to complement findings obtained during rectal palpation. Examinations were carried out using a portable veterinary ultrasound scanner equipped with a 5.0-7.5 MHz linear rectal transducer, suitable for bovine reproductive diagnostics.
All ultrasound procedures were conducted 30-60 days postpartum in cows included in the main and control groups. Animals were gently restrained in standing position to minimize stress, and examinations were performed without sedation unless clinically indicated. The transducer was protected with a disposable sleeve and lubricated with sterile ultrasound gel before each examination, and strict aseptic measures were observed throughout the procedure.
The uterus was evaluated for horn symmetry, wall thickness, echogenicity of the endometrium, and the presence or absence of intrauterine fluid. Uterine involution was assessed based on uterine size, tone, and echotexture. Ovarian examination included assessment of ovarian size, surface structure, and identification of follicles, corpora lutea, and cystic formations.
Differential diagnosis between ovarian hypofunction and follicular cysts was based on objective ultrasonographic criteria. Ovarian hypofunction was diagnosed in cases characterized by small ovaries with the absence of a dominant follicle (>10 mm) and corpus luteum, whereas follicular cysts were defined as anovulatory follicular structures with a diameter ≥25 mm persisting for more than 10 days in the absence of a functional corpus luteum. Endometrial thickness and uterine lumen content were also considered in the diagnostic assessment.
Dynamic ultrasound monitoring was performed in a subset of 45 cows following the administration of Estrophan to evaluate follicular wave development, dominant follicle growth, ovulation timing, and luteal formation. Repeated scans were conducted at 24-48 h intervals until ovulation was confirmed by disappearance of the dominant follicle and subsequent corpus luteum formation. Ultrasonographic findings were further interpreted in conjunction with hormonal analyses (progesterone, estradiol, FSH, and LH) to improve diagnostic accuracy.
2.6. Laboratory tests
Laboratory analyses were conducted to confirm clinical diagnoses and assess the reproductive status of cows in accordance with established quality standards.
Biochemical analyses: Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein under aseptic conditions, centrifuged, and serum was analyzed using a Mindray BS-120 automatic biochemical analyzer. Concentrations of glucose, total protein, albumin, urea, minerals, and enzyme activity (ALT, AST, ALP) were determined. Results were interpreted according to established reference values.
In hormonal analyses, levels of progesterone, estradiol, FSH, and LH were measured using certified ELISA kits with internal quality control, duplicate measurements, and calibration standards. Blood sampling was synchronized with the phases of the estrous cycle. Likewise in microbiological studies, uterine secretions were cultured on standardized media, pathogenic microorganisms were identified, antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed, and reference control strains were used to ensure analytical accuracy.
2.7. Treatment and prevention
Therapeutic and preventive measures described in this study were directly implemented by the authors as part of a structured intervention program aimed at restoring reproductive function in cows diagnosed with postpartum reproductive disorders.
Cows requiring treatment were identified based on clinical, rectal, and ultrasonographic findings. Animals included in the experimental group (n = 15) received the targeted therapeutic protocol in combination with insemination using domestic semen, whereas cows in the control group (n = 60) were managed according to standard farm practices and inseminated with imported semen. Treatment effectiveness was evaluated using predefined outcome indicators, including resolution of clinical signs of endometritis, time to first estrus, ovulation occurrence, fertilization rate, and ultrasound-confirmed recovery of uterine and ovarian function. The results of these assessments are presented in Section 3.
2.7.1. Treatment protocol for ovarian hypofunction
Cows diagnosed with ovarian hypofunction were treated according to the following protocol: Multivit (15 ml, IM) was administered on day 2, manual transrectal ovarian massage was performed on days 2 and 5, on day 9 Surfagon (2-4 ml, IM) was administered 10-12 h before insemination if estrus was detected, whereas in the absence of estrus Surfagon (8-10 ml, IM) was combined with Folligon (700-1000 IU, IM), and on day 12, in cases of estrus recurrence, Surfagon (3-5 ml, IM) was administered in combination with Multivit (15 ml, IM) and Sedimin (12-15 ml, IM) 12 h before insemination.
Restoration of ovarian cyclicity and ovulation following treatment was monitored by clinical observation and ultrasound examination, with treatment outcomes reported in Section 3.
2.7.2. Treatment protocol for follicular cysts
Cows diagnosed with follicular ovarian cysts were treated according to the following protocol: Surfagon (5 ml, IM) was administered daily on days 0-2, followed by Magestrofan (5 ml, IM) combined with vitamin E (1 ml, IM) on day 12, and manual transrectal uterine massage on day 15.
Treatment efficacy was evaluated based on regression of cystic structures, resumption of estrous activity, and confirmation of ovulation and luteal formation by ultrasound (Section 3).
2.7.3. Preventive measures
Preventive interventions implemented by the authors included dietary correction with emphasis on calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and selenium balance; administration of probiotics and immunomodulatory agents; routine clinical and ultrasound monitoring of postpartum cows; and strict adherence to hygienic standards during calving, postpartum management, and artificial insemination.
2.8. Statistical processing
Statistical analysis was performed by the authors using SPSS software (version 29.0; IBM Corp., USA) and Microsoft Excel. Clinical, reproductive, biochemical, and ultrasonographic data obtained during the study were analyzed to evaluate treatment effectiveness and identify factors associated with reproductive performance.
Continuous variables were initially assessed for normality using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Data showing a normal distribution are presented as mean ± standard deviation (M ± SD), whereas non-normally distributed data are presented as median with interquartile range (IQR). Homogeneity of variances was evaluated using the Levene test.
Comparisons between the main and control groups for continuous variables (e.g., time to estrus, follicle diameter, biochemical parameters) were performed using the Student’s t-test or Welch’s t-test for normally distributed data and the Mann-Whitney U test for non-normally distributed data. Categorical variables, including the prevalence of reproductive disorders and pregnancy outcomes, were analyzed using the χ2 test or Fisher’s exact test, as appropriate.
To assess the influence of multiple factors-such as age, parity, breed, season, and indicators of mineral metabolism-on reproductive outcomes, analysis of variance (ANOVA) or the Kruskal-Wallis test was applied. When significant differences were detected, post hoc comparisons were conducted using Tukey’s HSD or Dunn’s test with Bonferroni correction.
Associations between selected reproductive, hormonal, and biochemical parameters were evaluated using Pearson’s or Spearman’s correlation coefficients, depending on data distribution. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05, all tests were two-tailed, and the corresponding results of the statistical analyses are presented in Section 3 (Results).
3. Results
3.1. Clinical and gynecological research
The general clinical condition of cows with identified reproductive disorders was assessed as satisfactory in most cases. The animals showed normal appetite, normal rectal temperature, physiological heart rate, and regular breathing. No statistically significant deviations from clinically normal indicators were identified (p > 0.05; 95% CI within physiological values).
During external examination, the configuration of the rump, the condition of the vulvar mucosa, and the presence and nature of genital discharge were assessed. Mucopurulent discharge was recorded in some of the examined cows (p < 0.05).
When examining the vagina of animals with latent endometritis, the mucous membrane was pink in color with focal hyperemia and moderate edema. In a number of cases, white mucous exudate of a liquid consistency was noted. The frequency of detection of these signs varied between feed groups (95% CI did not overlap with the reference category).
A rectal examination revealed a number of reproductive disorders. In non-pregnant cows, the uterus was located longitudinally in the middle part of the pelvic cavity; in some cases, intrauterine fluid accumulation was noted. Asymmetric enlargement of the uterine horns and decreased contractility of the myometrium were recorded significantly more often (p < 0.05). Assessment of the condition of the ovaries revealed variability in their size, surface structure, and tissue density, indicating hypofunction, the presence of cystic formations, or persistence of the corpus luteum.
3.2. Ultrasound diagnostics
Ultrasound examination confirmed the findings of palpation and allowed for more accurate diagnoses. The method proved to be informative for differentiating between ovarian hypofunction and cystic formations, as well as for detecting chronic endometritis in the absence of pronounced clinical symptoms.
As part of the monitoring program for base farms, an ultrasound examination of the livestock was conducted. The results of the obstetric and gynecological examination of cows at the Amanat farm are presented in Table 1.
3.3. Analysis of living conditions and therapeutic and preventive measures
An analysis of living conditions and feeding revealed imbalances in minerals and vitamins, limited physical activity, and suboptimal microclimatic conditions.
The average values of biochemical blood parameters for cows from the base farms are presented in Table 2.
All studied biochemical parameters were within physiological norms.
The dynamics of sexual cyclicity and ovulation following the administration of Estrofane are presented in Table 3.
In the examined cows, signs of induced estrus appeared on average 35.4±1.15 h after drug administration. Ovulation was observed in 49 animals. The average duration of the estrous cycle was 21.7±0.84 days. Most cows (74.0%) exhibited a two-wave type of follicular growth, whereas 24.0% exhibited a three-wave type. The average duration of follicular dominance was 6.1±1.45 days, and the diameter of the dominant follicle prior to ovulation was 15.3±0.12 mm. The interval between the onset of estrus and ovulation averaged 26.5±1.63 h.
3.4. Reproduction rates when using semen from different sources
The results of cow reproduction when using semen from domestic and foreign bulls are presented in Table 4.
The data obtained reflect reproduction rates in individual farms participating in the breeding program and allow comparison of reproductive outcomes following the use of domestic and imported bull semen under practical farm conditions.
4. Discussion
Reproductive disorders continue to represent a significant challenge for dairy herd management on medium-sized farms in the West Kazakhstan region. The findings of the present study indicate that postpartum reproductive pathologies are relatively common under local production conditions. Endometritis of various forms was diagnosed in 18.8% of cows, ovarian hypofunction in 10.0%, and follicular cysts in 7.5%, whereas 22.5% of the examined animals showed no detectable reproductive abnormalities. Pregnancy was confirmed in 41.2% of cows at the time of examination (Table 1). These values are comparable with data reported for postpartum uterine and ovarian disorders in cattle from Russia, Kazakhstan, and European countries, confirming that reproductive pathologies remain a relevant issue in dairy farming systems with similar management conditions (Popov, 2022; Konstantinova et al., 2023).
The etiology of postpartum reproductive disorders observed in this study was multifactorial. Analysis of feeding practices and housing conditions demonstrated that mineral and vitamin imbalances, suboptimal microclimatic conditions, stall housing, and limited physical activity were associated with increased frequency and severity of uterine and ovarian disorders. In particular, cows with mineral deficiencies more frequently exhibited inflammatory changes in the endometrium, whereas energy deficiency was predominantly associated with ovarian hypofunction. Multiparous cows maintained under stall housing conditions were more prone to the development of follicular cysts. These observations are consistent with previous reports highlighting the role of nutritional imbalance, housing-related stress, and lactation stage as key risk factors for postpartum reproductive disorders (Bekenov et al., 2019; Abdalla et al., 2020; Roman et al., 2020).
The combination of clinical examination with gynecological assessment and ultrasonographic monitoring proved essential for the detection of both clinically evident and subclinical reproductive disorders. External examination revealed mucopurulent genital discharge in a proportion of animals, which was mainly associated with late lactation stages and insufficient hygiene. Rectal examination frequently identified uterine asymmetry, reduced contractility, intrauterine fluid accumulation, ovarian hypofunction, and cystic formations. Ultrasonographic evaluation allowed reliable differentiation between ovarian hypofunction and cystic conditions and enabled the detection of chronic endometritis in cows without pronounced clinical signs. These findings support previous evidence indicating that ultrasound diagnostics is a key tool for reproductive monitoring in modern dairy herds (Leroy et al., 2004; Pohler et al., 2016).
Monitoring of follicular dynamics following administration of Estrophan demonstrated that most cows (74%) exhibited a two-wave follicular growth pattern, while 24% showed a three-wave pattern. The mean time to the onset of estrus signs was 34.1 ± 1.02 h, ovulation occurred in nearly all treated animals, and the average duration of the estrous cycle was 21.7 ± 0.84 days. The diameter of the dominant follicle prior to ovulation averaged 15.3 ± 0.12 mm, and the interval between estrus onset and ovulation was 26.5 ± 1.63 h. Differences in progesterone peak concentrations between two-wave (5.7 ng/mL on day 12) and three-wave cycles (6.2 ng/mL on day 17) further confirmed the influence of follicular wave patterns on endocrine regulation, as reported previously. These data are of practical importance for optimizing insemination timing and improving reproductive efficiency.
The therapeutic protocols applied in this study, including vitamin supplementation, prostaglandin administration, manual ovarian or uterine massage, and hormone therapy, resulted in restoration of estrous cyclicity in approximately 70-80% of affected animals. Treatment regimens for ovarian hypofunction and follicular cysts demonstrated high clinical effectiveness, in agreement with international data on comprehensive reproductive therapy in cattle (Roman et al., 2020). These results emphasize the importance of standardized and locally adapted treatment protocols for improving reproductive outcomes on medium-sized farms operating under comparable environmental and management conditions.
5. Conclusion
This study provides region-specific evidence that postpartum reproductive disorders, primarily endometritis, ovarian hypofunction, and follicular cysts, represent major constraints on dairy cattle fertility in the West Kazakhstan region. The occurrence of these conditions was closely associated with postpartum management practices, nutritional balance, and overall herd health status, emphasizing the importance of systematic reproductive monitoring under local production conditions.
The results demonstrate that an integrated diagnostic and therapeutic approach, combining gynecological examination, ultrasonography, hormonal treatment, and nutritional correction, improves reproductive recovery and conception rates more effectively than isolated interventions or semen origin alone. Comparative analysis of domestic and imported semen revealed no consistent advantage of foreign semen in terms of reproductive performance or calf birth weight; instead, outcomes were mainly influenced by bull genotype, herd management practices, and environmental factors. Normal biochemical blood parameters suggest that subclinical nutritional imbalances, rather than overt metabolic disorders, contribute to the development of postpartum reproductive pathologies. Overall, the findings highlight the need for structured, locally adapted reproductive management and preventive programs to improve fertility, reduce postpartum complications, and enhance productivity in dairy herds under arid and semi-arid conditions.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan (program No. BR22886157 “Management, conservation and rational use of genetic resources of cattle of dairy breeds with by means of selection and technological and molecular genetic methods”).
Data Availability Statement
The entire data set that supports the results of this study was published in the article itself.
References
-
ABDALLA, H., DE MESTRE, A.M. and SALEM, S.E., 2020. Efficacy of ovulation synchronization with timed artificial insemination in treatment of follicular cysts in dairy cows. Theriogenology, vol. 154, pp. 171-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.05.029 PMid:32622197.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.05.029 -
ADNANE, M., KAIDI, R., HANZEN, C. and ENGLAND, G.C., 2017. Risk factors of clinical and subclinical endometritis in cattle: a review. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3906/vet-1603-63
» https://doi.org/10.3906/vet-1603-63 -
BARUSELLI, P.S., FERREIRA, R.M., COLLI, M.H.A., ELLIFF, F.M., SÁ FILHO, M.F., VIEIRA, L. and DE FREITAS, B.G., 2018. Timed artificial insemination: current challenges and recent advances in reproductive efficiency in beef and dairy herds in Brazil. Animal Reproduction, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 558-571. https://doi.org/10.21451/1984-3143-AR999
» https://doi.org/10.21451/1984-3143-AR999 -
BEKENOV, D.M., SPANOV, A.A., KENCHINBAYEV, N.S. and BAIMUKANOV, A.D., 2019. Updating the treatment method of the follicular ovarian cysts in cows of the dairy productivity direction in the East-Kazakhstan region. News of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Series of Agrarian Sciences, vol. 5, no. 53, pp. 83-87. https://doi.org/10.32014/2019.2224-526X.64
» https://doi.org/10.32014/2019.2224-526X.64 -
BRAGA PAIANO, R., BECKER BIRGEL, D. and HARRY BIRGEL JUNIOR, E., 2019. Uterine involution and reproductive performance in dairy cows with metabolic diseases. Animals, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9030093 PMid:30889779.
» https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9030093 -
CARDOSO CONSENTINI, C.E., WILTBANK, M.C. and SARTORI, R., 2021. Factors that optimize reproductive efficiency in dairy herds with an emphasis on timed artificial insemination programs. Animals, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 301. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020301 PMid:33503935.
» https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020301 - COUNCIL OF EUROPE, 1986. European Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals used for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes. Strasbourg: Council of Europe (ETS no. 123).
-
DASH, S., CHAKRAVARTY, A.K., SINGH, A., UPADHYAY, A., SINGH, M. and YOUSUF, S., 2016. Effect of heat stress on reproductive performances of dairy cattle and buffaloes: a review. Veterinary World, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 235-244. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2016.235-244 PMid:27057105.
» https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2016.235-244 -
DOLECHECK, K.A., GARCÍA-GUERRA, A. and MORAES, L.E., 2019. Quantifying the effects of mastitis on the reproductive performance of dairy cows: a meta-analysis. Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 102, no. 9, pp. 8454-8477. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15127 PMid:31229281.
» https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15127 -
GIORDANO, J.O., STANGAFERRO, M.L., WIJMA, R., CHANDLER, W.C. and WATTERS, R.D., 2015. Reproductive performance of dairy cows managed with a program aimed at increasing insemination of cows in estrus based on increased physical activity and fertility of timed artificial inseminations. Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, no. 4, pp. 2488-2501. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2014-8961 PMid:25660744.
» https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2014-8961 -
HADDADI, M. and SEIFI, H.A., 2021. Evaluation of hormonal treatments for different scenarios of cystic ovarian follicles in dairy cattle. The Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology https://doi.org/10.22067/ijvst.2021.69741.1034
» https://doi.org/10.22067/ijvst.2021.69741.1034 - KONSTANTINOVA, M.A., NIKITIN, D.A., SEMENOV, V.G. and CHIRGIN, E.D., 2023. Prevention of metabolic and gynecological pathologies of the postpartum period by immunocorrection of the cows’ body. APK Rossii, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 399-403.
-
LEROY, J.L.M.R., VANHOLDER, T., DELANGHE, J.R., OPSOMER, G., VAN SOOM, A., BOLS, P.E., DEWULF, J. and DE KRUIF, A., 2004. Metabolic changes in follicular fluid of the dominant follicle in high-yielding dairy cows early post partum. Theriogenology, vol. 62, no. 6, pp. 1131-1143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2003.12.017 PMid:15289052.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2003.12.017 -
MIMOUNE, N., AZZOUZ, M.Y., KHELEF, D. and KAIDI, R., 2021. Ovarian cysts in cattle: a review. Veterinarska Stanica, vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 587-603. https://doi.org/10.46419/vs.52.5.10
» https://doi.org/10.46419/vs.52.5.10 -
MOLINA-COTO, R. and LUCY, M.C., 2018. Uterine inflammation affects the reproductive performance of dairy cows: a review. Agronomía Mesoamericana, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 449-468. https://doi.org/10.15517/ma.v29i2.29852
» https://doi.org/10.15517/ma.v29i2.29852 - PARIKH, S.S., KAVANI, F.S., SAVSANI, H.H., VASAVA, A.A. and SAVALIYA, B.D., 2022. Effect of immunomodulators and antibiotic on haematological profile of Gir cows with subclinical endometritis. The Indian Journal of Veterinary Sciences and Biotechnology, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 63-67.
-
PASCOTTINI, O.B., PROBO, M., LEBLANC, S.J., OPSOMER, G. and HOSTENS, M., 2020. Assessment of associations between transition diseases and reproductive performance of dairy cows using survival analysis and decision tree algorithms. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 176, pp. 104908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.104908 PMid:32036304.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.104908 -
POHLER, K.G., PERES, R.F.G., GREEN, J.A., GRAFF, H., MARTINS, T., VASCONCELOS, J.L.M. and SMITH, M.F., 2016. Use of bovine pregnancy-associated glycoproteins to predict late embryonic mortality in postpartum Nelore beef cows. Theriogenology, vol. 85, no. 9, pp. 1652-1659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.01.026 PMid:26928645.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.01.026 -
POPOV, D.V., 2022. Microbiota and reproduction in agricultural mammal species (review). Agricultural Biology, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 222-236. https://doi.org/10.15389/agrobiology.2022.2.222rus [in Russian]
» https://doi.org/10.15389/agrobiology.2022.2.222rus -
RAKETSKY, V.A., NAMETOV, A.M., SOZINOV, V.A. and BAISAKALOV, A.A., 2021. Increasing the efficiency of the herd reproduction system by introducing innovative technologies into dairy farming in Northern Kazakhstan. Veterinary World, vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 3028-3037. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2021.3028-3037 PMid:35017853.
» https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2021.3028-3037 - ROMAN, L., BROSHKOV, M., POPOVA, I., HIERDIIEVA, A., SIDASHOVA, S., BOGACH, N., ULIZKO, S. and GUTYJ, B., 2020. Influence of ovarian follicular cysts on reproductive performance in the cattle of new Ukrainian red dairy breed. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 426-434.
-
RUTHERFORD, A.J., OIKONOMOU, G. and SMITH, R.F., 2016. The effect of subclinical ketosis on activity at estrus and reproductive performance in dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 4808-4815. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-10154 PMid:26995121.
» https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-10154 -
SARKAR, P., PATRA, M.K. and KUMAR, H., 2016. Strategic treatment with immunomodulators to resolve endometritis in cow: a review. Agricultural Reviews (Karnal), vol. 37, no. 3. https://doi.org/10.18805/ag.v37i3.3534
» https://doi.org/10.18805/ag.v37i3.3534 -
ŠAVC, M., DUANE, M., O’GRADY, L.E., SOMERS, J.R. and BELTMAN, M.E., 2016. Uterine disease and its effect on subsequent reproductive performance of dairy cattle: a comparison of two cow-side diagnostic methods. Theriogenology, vol. 86, no. 8, pp. 1983-1988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.06.018 PMid:27450885.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.06.018 -
THATCHER, W.W., GUZELOGLU, A., MATTOS, R., BINELLI, M., HANSEN, T.R. and PRU, J.K., 2001. Uterine-conceptus interactions and reproductive failure in cattle. Theriogenology, vol. 56, no. 9, pp. 1435-1450 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093-691X(01)00645-8 PMid:11768809.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093-691X(01)00645-8 -
TOLEDO, M.Z., BAEZ, G.M., GARCIA-GUERRA, A., LOBOS, N.E., GUENTHER, J.N., TREVISOL, E., LUCHINI, D., SHAVER, R.D. and WILTBANK, M.C., 2017. Effect of feeding rumen-protected methionine on productive and reproductive performance of dairy cows. PLoS One, vol. 12, no. 12, pp. e0189117. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189117 PMid:29261700.
» https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189117 -
VASCONCELOS, J.L.M., CARVALHO, R., PERES, R.F., RODRIGUES, A.D., CLARO JUNIOR, I., MENEGHETTI, M., AONO, F.H., COSTA, W.M., LOPES, C.N. and COOKE, R.F. and POHLER, K.G., 2018. Reproductive programs for beef cattle: incorporating management and reproductive techniques for better fertility. Animal Reproduction, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 547-557. https://doi.org/10.21451/1984-3143-AR998
» https://doi.org/10.21451/1984-3143-AR998 -
VERGARA, C.F., DÖPFER, D., COOK, N.B., NORDLUND, K.V., MCART, J.A.A., NYDAM, D.V. and OETZEL, G.R., 2014. Risk factors for postpartum problems in dairy cows: explanatory and predictive modeling. Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 97, no. 7, pp. 4127-4140. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-6440 PMid:24792805.
» https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-6440 -
XU, X., BAI, J., LIU, K., XIAO, L., QIN, Y., GAO, M. and LIU, Y., 2023. Association of metabolic and endocrine disorders with bovine ovarian follicular cysts. Animals, vol. 13, no. 21, pp. 3301. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13213301 PMid:37958056.
» https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13213301
Edited by
-
Editor:
Takako Matsumura Tundisi
