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Original Article • Braz. J. Biol. 86 • 2026 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.300962 linkcopy

Open-access Sport fishing tournaments in a major neotropical reservoir (Itaipu, Brazil): socioeconomic and fisheries aspects

Torneios de pesca esportiva em um importante reservatório neotropical (Itaipu, Brasil): aspectos socioeconômicos e pesqueiros

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

Competitive fishing is a segment of recreational fishing focused on organized sporting events with specific rules. In emerging economies, this activity has grown markedly. In Brazil, fishing clubs and competitions emerged in the 1930s and have since expanded, especially in coastal regions. Despite the recognized importance of recreational fishing, national-level information remains limited, particularly regarding tournaments in lentic systems such as reservoirs. This study analyzed the socioeconomic dynamics of sport fishing tournaments in a Neotropical reservoir by examining participants’ social and economic profiles and the characteristics of the fisheries. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with tournament participants at the Itaipu Reservoir between 2015 and 2016 (n = 640; n = 438 included in analyses). Participants were predominantly businessmen, with a mean age of 39.1 years, married, with secondary or higher education, and with average incomes between three and six minimum wages. Most preferred to attend events with family and friends, and the average expenditure per event was US$124.37. Significant differences in socioeconomic factors and fishing characteristics were detected between types of fisheries. Peacock bass (Cichla spp.) tournaments attracted participants with high education and purchasing power, whereas croaker (Plagioscion squamosissimus) tournaments were dominated by anglers with lower incomes, who more often opted for camping and self-prepared meals. These results reveal marked heterogeneity among sport-fishing tournaments in the Itaipu Reservoir, both in participant profiles and in fishing practices. The findings highlight the economic and tourism potential of these events and indicate that public policies should not treat tournaments uniformly. Instead, tailored and segmented strategies that account for the specific characteristics of each event and its target audience are required.

Keywords:
recreational fishing; freshwater; lentic environment; fishing competitions

Resumo

A pesca competitiva é um segmento da pesca recreativa focado em eventos esportivos organizados com regras específicas. Nos países emergentes, essa atividade cresceu consideravelmente. No Brasil, clubes e competições de pesca surgiram na década de 1930 e, desde então, expandiram-se, principalmente nas regiões costeiras. Apesar da reconhecida importância da pesca recreativa, as informações em nível nacional ainda são incipientes, particularmente no que diz respeito a torneios em sistemas lênticos, como reservatórios. Este estudo analisou a dinâmica socioeconômica de torneios de pesca esportiva em um reservatório neotropical, examinando os perfis sociais e econômicos dos participantes e as características das pescarias. Foram realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas com participantes do torneio no reservatório de Itaipu entre 2015 e 2016 (n=640; n=438 analisados). Os participantes eram predominantemente empresários, com idade média de 39,1 anos, casados, com ensino secundário ou superior e rendimentos médios entre três e seis salários mínimos. A maioria preferiu participar de eventos com familiares e amigos, e o gasto médio por evento foi de US$ 124,37. Foram detectadas diferenças significativas nos aspectos socioeconômicos e nas características da pesca entre as diferentes áreas pesqueiras. Os torneios de tucunaré (Cichla spp.) atraíram participantes com alto nível de escolaridade e poder aquisitivo, enquanto os torneios de corvina (Plagioscion squamosissimus) foram dominados por pescadores com renda mais baixa, que geralmente optavam por acampar e preparar suas próprias refeições. Esses resultados revelam uma heterogeneidade acentuada entre os torneios de pesca esportiva no reservatório de Itaipu, tanto nos perfis dos participantes quanto nas práticas de pesca. Os resultados destacam o potencial econômico e turístico desses eventos e indicam que as políticas públicas não devem tratar os torneios de forma uniforme. Em vez disso, são necessárias estratégias segmentadas, adaptadas às características específicas de cada evento e de cada público.

Palavras-chave:
pesca recreativa; água doce; ambiente lêntico; competições de pesca

1. Introduction

Recreational fishing involves the capture of aquatic organisms (e.g, lobsters, crabs, squid, octopus, oysters, mussels, and frogs), especially fish, for leisure and sporting purposes (EIFAC, 2008; FAO, 2012). Unlike subsistence or commercial fishing, it is not intended to meet nutritional needs or generate income (Arlinghaus and Cooke, 2009; FAO, 2012; Cooke et al., 2015; Hughes, 2015). Within this category, competitive fishing stands out as a modality centered on organized sporting events, such as tournaments and championships (Schramm Junior et al., 1991a; Brasil, 2010; Freire et al., 2012).

Competitive fishing is widespread in many countries where it holds substantial economic and cultural relevance, including most European nations, as well as Australia, Canada, and the United States (Kerr and Kamke, 2003; Hughes, 2015; Castañeda et al., 2020; Arlinghaus et al., 2021; Hwang et al., 2021; Ryan et al., 2022). In the United States, for example, tournaments have been held since the 1950s, attracting anglers from across the country and abroad. These events often target species valued for their sporting appeal, such as black bass (Micropterus spp.), muskellunge (Esox masquinongy), and red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus), and are characterized by high entry fees and prize pools that can reach up to one million US dollars (Schramm Junior et al., 1991b; Mcintosh, 2011; Cooke et al., 2020).

In Brazil, the first fishing clubs and competitions emerged in the 1930s, mainly in coastal regions of the Southeast and Northeast (Fabri, 2006; Freire et al., 2014, 2016). Since then, sport fishing events have expanded nationwide. The establishment of the Brazilian Sport Fishing Confederation in 2018 further fueled this growth, with 47 official tournaments being held between 2023 and 2024 (CBPE, 2023). Rivers and hydroelectric reservoirs have become particularly attractive settings for these events (Agostinho et al., 2007; Brasil, 2010). In the Itaipu Reservoir, for instance, more than 25 tournaments are held annually, attracting thousands of anglers and consolidating the area as a major destination for competitive inland fishing (Okada et al., 2011; ADETUR, 2022).

Despite this expansion, scientific information on the dynamics of fishing tournaments in Neotropical reservoirs remains scarce, largely due to the lack of systematic data and monitoring. As a result, the socioeconomic contribution of these events is still poorly understood beyond basic metrics such as catch and species composition (Freire et al., 2012; Arlinghaus et al., 2016; Bower et al., 2020). Previous studies in the Itaipu Reservoir have described participants’ profiles, but remain largely descriptive, limiting comparisons among tournaments and angler groups (Hillesheim et al., 2022).

In this context, we analyze the social and economic aspects of competitive anglers in the Itaipu Reservoir by examining participant profiles and fishery characteristics across 14 sport fishing tournaments held in 2015 and 2016. Specifically, we test whether (a) socioeconomic profiles differ among tournaments targeting different species and (b) fishing characteristics vary among tournaments. By addressing these questions, we aim to provide insights to support the management and long-term sustainability of sport fishing in the region.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study area

The Itaipu Reservoir was formed in 1982 by damming the Paraná River along the border between Brazil and Paraguay (25°24’28’’ S, 54°35’24’’ W) (Druciaki, 2019). It extends for approximately 170 km and covers an area of 1,350 km2 (ACS, 2012) (Figure 1). On the Brazilian side, the reservoir borders 15 municipalities in the state of Paraná, including Foz do Iguaçu, Santa Terezinha de Itaipu, Itaipulândia, Missal, Santa Helena, Mercedes, Marechal Cândido Rondon, and Guaíra (Itaipu Binacional, 2026), some of which promote sport fishing tournaments (Figure 1).

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Figure 1
Location of the Itaipu Hydroelectric Power Plant reservoir and the venues of sport fishing tournaments held in 2015 and 2016 in Paraná State, Brazil.

Although electricity generation is its primary function, the reservoir also supports multiple uses such as water supply for human consumption, irrigation, tourism and recreation, navigation, and aquaculture and fisheries (Ostrovski, 2014).

2.2. Sampling

Data were obtained through semi-structured interviews (predefined open and closed questions) with participants (n=640) from 14 sport fishing tournaments held between 2015 and 2016 in seven municipalities bordering the Itaipu Reservoir (Figure 1; Table 1). Participants were randomly selected during the events. The questionnaire addressed socioeconomic characteristics (e.g., age, marital status, education, occupation, income, expenses, companionship, transportation, food, and lodging) and features of sport fishing activity (e.g., fishing gear, number of fish caught, and engine power). Core questions included place of residence, occupation, frequency of participation in tournaments, event-related expenses, type of vessel, fishing gear used, and number of fish caught per event.

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Table 1
Dates, locations, and names of competitive fishing events held in the Itaipu Reservoir (2015-2016).

For data organization and analysis, tournaments were classified into three categories: (a) peacock bass tournaments—events targeting peacock bass (Cichla spp.); (b) corvina tournaments—events targeting corvina (Plagioscion squamosissimus); and (c) mixed tournaments—events involving both peacock bass and corvina anglers. Thus, to ensure statistical independence among sampling units within each of the three categories defined above, anglers who participated in more than one group were excluded from the analyses. This procedure resulted in a final sample of 438 respondents, distributed as follows: 175 in peacock bass tournaments, 175 in corvina tournaments, and 88 in mixed tournaments

All stages of this study were approved by the Research Ethics Committee (CEP) of the State University of Western Paraná and registered on Plataforma Brasil (CAAE: 07316818.7.0000.0107), in accordance with protocols for research involving human subjects.

2.3. Data analysis

Socioeconomic characteristics of competitive anglers were summarized using principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) based on Gower distances. Only participants who answered all questions and belonged to a single group were included. Given the mixed types of variables (Table 2 and Supplementary Material - Table 1)—continuous (age and number of fish caught), ordinal (education level, family income, tournament expenditure, and engine power), and nominal (marital status, occupation, means of transport, companions, accommodation, food, and fishing equipment)—the use of Gower distance is appropriate. No additional normalization is required, as each variable is internally scaled so that its contribution ranges from 0 to 1, with ties assigned a value of 0 (Podani, 1999).

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Table 2
Characteristics of the socioeconomic variables of competitive anglers participating in tournaments in the Itaipu Reservoir (2015-2016).

Dissimilarities were calculated using Gower’s index (Gower, 1971) with Podani's extension for ordinal variables (Podani, 1999). The first two PCoA axes were retained for interpretation and compared among tournament types using permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) based on Gower distances. The homogeneity of multivariate dispersion among tournament types was assessed using the permutational test for multivariate dispersion (PERMUTEST; Anderson, 2006). This procedure evaluates whether multivariate variances differ across groups, thereby ensuring that PERMANOVA results can be interpreted with greater robustness.

Associations between socioeconomic variables and each PCoA axis were evaluated using linear models, with the PCoA axes as response variables and socioeconomic characteristics as predictors. Multicollinearity was negligible (all GVIFs adjusted for degrees of freedom were < 1.5), supporting reliable interpretation of the linear model coefficients (Fox and Monette, 1992). Bivariate relationships between axes and the most strongly associated variables were plotted for interpretation. All analyses were performed in R 4.5.2 (R Core Team, 2025) using the vegan package (Oksanen et al., 2019). Permutation tests were conducted using 999 random permutations, and statistical significance was assessed at the 5% probability level.

3. Results

3.1. Socioeconomic aspects

Most participants were entrepreneurs, with a mean age of 39.1 years, were predominantly married, and had a completed high school education (Figure 2; Table 3). Average monthly income ranged from three to six times the minimum wage (minimum wage = R$880.00 or US$218.90; US$1 = R$4.02; January 2016) (Table 3). Private cars were the primary means of transportation to tournaments (Figure 2).

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Figure 2
Frequency of participation in sport fishing tournaments in the Itaipu Reservoir during 2015 and 2016 according to selected socioeconomic and fishing-related variables.
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Table 3
Socioeconomic characteristics of competitive anglers participating in tournaments in the Itaipu Reservoir (2015-2016).

Participants generally reported a preference for attending events with friends or family (Figure 2). Accommodation was mainly in hotels or camping areas, with anglers often preparing their own structures (e.g., tents) (Figure 2). Meals were typically taken in restaurants or prepared by the participants themselves (Figure 2).

3.2. Aspects of sport fishing

Reels were the main fishing gear used during tournaments, although rods, lines, and other equipment were also recorded (Figure 2). The average biomass captured was 3.45 kg per fisherman (Table 3). Most anglers reported expenditures below R$500.00 per event (<US$124.37; January 2016), although higher expenses between R$1,500 and R$2,000 were also observed (n=6; 0.53%) (Table 3). Boat engines ranged from electric motors to combustion engines of up to 300 HP, with the highest frequency between 60 and 70 HP (Table 3).

To assess socioeconomic differences among tournament types, we analyzed data from 438 respondents who completed all survey questions. PERMUTEST applied to the Principal Coordinates Analysis axes (PCoA; Axis 1: λ = 11.1, 2.20%; Axis 2: λ = 9.87, 1.56%) revealed significant differences in multivariate dispersion among tournament categories (F(2, 435) = 5.31, p = 0.004). Mixed tournaments exhibited greater within-group variability than croaker (p = 0.003) and peacock bass tournaments (p = 0.031), whereas croaker and peacock bass tournaments showed homogeneous dispersions (p = 0.16). Centroid positions also differed significantly among the three tournament groups (PERMANOVA, F(2, 435) = 26, R2 = 0.11, p = 0.001; pairwise comparisons, p < 0.05), with particularly pronounced differences between peacock bass and croaker tournaments (PERMANOVA, F(1, 261) = 61, R2 = 0.19, p = 0.001) (Figure 3).

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Figure 3
a) Bivariate ordination of participants in sport fishing tournaments in the Itaipu Reservoir (2015-2016) based on principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) of socioeconomic and fishing-related characteristics, grouped by tournaments type (Centroids and standard deviation (SD) ellipses for each group are shown); b) Percentage of variance in PCoA axis 1 (PCoA1) explained by socioeconomic and fishing-related variables in a linear model for the Itaipu Reservoir (2015-2016).

The heterogeneity observed in mixed tournaments may influence the interpretation of PERMANOVA results, as this test is sensitive to both differences in centroid location and dispersion. Accordingly, while croaker and peacock bass tournaments differ in centroid position independently of dispersion, results involving mixed tournaments should be interpreted with caution, as part of the observed significance may arise from higher internal variability. Nonetheless, because mixed tournaments combine participants from both croaker and peacock bass events, their intermediate centroid position and broader variability are expected and socioeconomically plausible, reflecting a blend of characteristics from the two tournament types. Educational level, family income, food, occupation, transportation, and accommodation were the variables that most contributed to the separation along the main PCoA axis (Figure 3b).

Peacock bass tournaments attract a higher socioeconomic profile, composed mostly of businesspeople (52.9%), with high levels of education and income exceeding six minimum wages (Supplementary Material – Figs. 2 and 3). This audience demands formal infrastructure (hotels and restaurants), uses larger vehicles (pickup trucks), and invests in high-performance equipment, with emphasis on reels (88.4%) and high-power motors (150–300 HP) (Supplementary Material – Figs. 4-7).

Croaker fishing tournaments presented a more modest socioeconomic profile, with lower proportions of higher education (44.3%) and lower income (30.8% above six minimum wages) (Supplementary Material – Figs. 2 and3). Unlike the previous profile, camping accommodation predominated (48.2%) and low-power motors (up to 25 HP; 43.8%) was used (Supplementary Material – Figs. 4 and 8). These data confirm the socioeconomic gradient and the separation of the samples evidenced by the PCoA.

4. Discussion

Interviews with participants in sport fishing tournaments in the Itaipu Reservoir revealed clear socioeconomic and operational differences between croaker and peacock bass anglers. These distinctions were mainly driven by educational level and family income, as well as by fishing characteristics such as engine power and equipment. Similar to previous studies in Itaipu (Hillesheim et al., 2022) and other Brazilian regions, competitive anglers generally exhibit a high socioeconomic status, with above-average income and education. This pattern has also been reported in coastal tournaments (Bahia and Ávila, 2015; Freire et al., 2017, 2018, 2020) and among fishing tourists in the Amazon (Frédou et al., 2008; Souza, 2019) and Pantanal (Massaroli et al., 2021).

Participants typically work in well-remunerated professions, such as business, sales, real estate, and public service, which explains their higher purchasing power compared to amateur fishermen in other inland reservoirs (Bahia and Ávila, 2015; Freire et al., 2017, 2020; Hillesheim et al., 2022). This is reflected in the higher average expenditure per event in Itaipu tournaments, reinforcing the characterization of these events as socially selective. Although these values exceed those recorded in other Brazilian freshwater tournaments (Zacarkim et al., 2005; Peixer and Petrere Junior, 2009; Parras and Smith, 2014; Hillesheim et al., 2022), they remain lower than expenditures observed in similar events in developed countries (Driscoll and Myers, 2014; Maceina et al., 2019) and in marine sport fishing (Lerner et al., 2017; Kerstetter et al., 2017; Freire et al., 2018; Freire and Sumaila, 2019).

Beyond the economic dimension, sport fishing in Brazil has a strong social component. Most anglers fish with friends or family, a pattern that promotes sociability, knowledge exchange, and the intergenerational transmission of practices (Guimarães and Fantinel, 2015). In Itaipu, rods and lines constitute the main fishing gears used by anglers, a pattern also observed by Okada et al. (2011) and likely reflecting the ecological traits of the target species. Peacock bass are efficiently captured with artificial lures (Gomiero and Braga, 2003; Gomiero et al., 2009; Gomiero, 2010), whereas croaker inhabit deeper areas and respond better to natural bait (Casatti, 2005; Graça and Pavanelli, 2007; Zeinad and Prado, 2012). Both species are non-native, originating from the Amazon Basin (Okada et al., 2011)

The prominence of non-native species in tournaments, therefore, requires caution. Although competitive fishing generates socioeconomic benefits, management measures such as mandatory catch-and-release—illegal under Brazilian federal law (Law 9,605/1998; Garcia et al., 2022; Pelicice et al., 2023)—may inadvertently favor the survival, recruitment, and dispersal of non-native species, with potential impacts on biodiversity and habitats (Pelicice et al., 2023). Evidence from other reservoirs worldwide (Dainys et al., 2022) shows that recreational fishing can hinder the recovery of predatory fish stocks, even after commercial fishing bans. This apparent contradiction highlights the need for context-specific management: while sport anglers could, in principle, contribute to controlling non-native populations, current tournament practices may instead reinforce their persistence. In addition to the issue of non-native species, indirect impacts of tournaments—such as habitat disturbance, fuel spills, and emissions—should be evaluated to support management and policy decisions.

Competition is a defining feature of these events (Guimarães and Fantinel, 2015). In Itaipu, peacock bass tournaments are more competitive, leading anglers to invest in sophisticated equipment and high-powered boats, enabling faster access to productive fishing areas (Hillesheim, 2018). Engine power in these tournaments exceeds that reported for other Brazilian reservoirs (Cintra et al., 2009) and fishing tourism regions (Neto and Mateus, 2009), highlighting technological intensification as a competitive strategy.

Despite Brazil being a regional leader in recreational fishing research (Zumpano et al., 2023; Ladislau et al., 2024), studies on competitive freshwater fishing remain scarce and largely concentrated in coastal systems (Amorim et al., 2006; Freire, 2010; Freire et al., 2017, 2018, 2020; Mourato et al., 2016; 2019; Negro et al., 2021). Previous studies highlight the importance of tournaments for understanding socioeconomic profiles (Freire et al., 2020), local tourism (Bahia and Ávila, 2015), catch composition (Amorim et al., 2006; Mourato et al., 2016, 2019), and environmental impacts (Zacarkim et al., 2005; Okada et al., 2011; Hillesheim et al., 2022). Our results corroborate this perspective, showing that the multivariate separation in the PCoA reflects an investment gradient. While the peacock bass tournament is driven by an elite profile, with high technological dependence and hotel logistics, the croaker tournament is based on a popular and low-cost base. This polarization suggests that management and tourism potential vary across target species, requiring distinct strategies for each audience.

In Brazil, data on marine sport fishing are better systematized than those for freshwater fishing, particularly in reservoirs. Encouraging monitoring programs for inland sport fisheries would enable the systematic and standardized collection of information and, consequently, improve management practices. In contrast, countries such as the United States and Canada have long-standing monitoring programs for recreational and competitive fishing, supported by national databases and standardized surveys (Brownscombe et al., 2014; Hughes, 2014; RBFF, 2022; NOAA, 2023). Methods such as the trip cost method (TCM) (Shrestha et al., 2002; Gómez et al., 2011; Cabrera and Boncheva, 2013; Massaroli et al., 2021) and direct expenditure estimates (Freire and Sumaila, 2019) are widely used to quantify socioeconomic contributions, offering useful models for Brazil.

Although our sample adequately represents the current context of sport fishing tournaments in Neotropical reservoirs, limitations remain. The study focused exclusively on competitors, excluding other actors in the fishing-event chain (e.g., organizers, vendors, technical staff, and companions). Moreover, Itaipu’s status as a major tourist hub may have inflated income and expenditure estimates. These factors constrain broader generalization but do not diminish the relevance of the results for understanding competitive freshwater fishing in Brazil.

5. Conclusion

In summary, sport fishing tournaments in the Itaipu Reservoir exhibit patterns that reflect both the socioeconomic profile of anglers and the characteristics of different fishing modalities. Most of the differences observed among tournaments are driven by socioeconomic variables—particularly participants’ education level and family income—as well as by the degree of competitiveness of the events. These findings indicate that management actions and public policies for fishing tournaments in Neotropical reservoirs cannot be treated uniformly, without considering the diversity of participants and the specificities of each type of sporting event. Therefore, managers of freshwater fishing tournaments should prioritize segmented measures and actions tailored to distinct audiences and competitive contexts.

Beyond information on anglers' socioeconomic characteristics, future studies should also include other actors involved in fishing events (e.g., merchants, companions, technical staff, organizers, fishing club leaders, and tourism companies), as well as data on stock status, catch efficiency, and water quality. Such information is essential for guiding public policies and regulating fishing and tournaments in Neotropical reservoirs. Finally, promoting fishing tournaments in the Itaipu Reservoir may strengthen regional tourism, contributing to job creation and income generation. Accordingly, these results are essential for understanding the socioeconomic benefits of recreational fishing in emerging economies such as Brazil.

Supplementary Material

Supplementary material accompanies this paper.

Supplementary Material – Table 1.

Supplementary Material

This material is available as part of the online article from https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.300962

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all recreational fishermen from the municipalities bordering the Itaipu Reservoir, as well as the local sport fishing clubs and associations, for their participation and collaboration in this study. We also thank the Research Group in Fisheries and Limnology (Gerpel) at Western Paraná State University and the Neotropical Institute for Environmental Research (INEO) for their logistical support.

This work was financed through a technical-scientific and financial cooperation agreement between Itaipu Binacional and the Research Group in Fisheries and Limnology (Gerpel), Western Paraná State University. This study was also partially funded by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) – Finance Code 001. We further express our gratitude to the Brazilian agency Fundação Araucária for providing a scholarship to the first author. A. T. Oliveira is a research productivity fellow of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, process 310966/2025-6) and a postdoctoral fellow at the State University of Amazonas (UEA).

Data Availability Statement

The dataset analyzed or produced in this study can be requested from the corresponding author.

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Edited by

  • Editor:
    Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    27 July 2026
  • Date of issue
    2026

History

  • Received
    16 Sept 2025
  • Accepted
    16 May 2026
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