Comparative assessment of chemical and regenerative management practices in irrigated BRS 264 wheat cultivation in the Brazilian Cerrado

Avaliação comparativa dos manejos químico e regenerativo na cultura irrigada do trigo BRS 264 no Cerrado brasileiro

Abstract

The demand for fertilizers in agriculture is growing, as is the search for new sources of nutrients that cause less impact on the environment. The use of soil remineralizers, using regional sources of nutrients, stands out in this context. In addition, there is the use of nutrient-solubilizing microorganisms, which release organic acids that increase efficiency and accelerate the availability of nutrients from regional sources with low solubility. Altogether, they promote soil health, conserve natural resources, and minimize negative impacts on ecosystems. Thus, this study evaluated the development of the wheat cultivar BRS 264, using soil remineralizers and regional fertilizers in fertility management and biological products in disease and pest control. The analysis included total productivity and economic viability, measured through operational gross profit indexes. Moreover, soil chemical analysis was conducted before and after cultivation. The results revealed a 14% increase in productivity of the BRS 264 cultivar in an irrigated system with regenerative management and a 27% reduction in total costs per hectare compared to conventional management. The results demonstrate a substantial reduction in total costs per hectare compared to conventional management, suggesting this approach is effective from both agronomic and economic perspectives. These findings suggest that natural nutrient sources combined with biological products can be effective tools in soil fertility management in wheat cultivation.

Keywords:
biological control; economic sustainability; bio-inputs

Resumo

A demanda de fertilizantes pela agricultura é crescente, bem como a busca por novas fontes de nutrientes que causem menor impacto ao ambiente. Destaca-se nesse contexto, o uso de remineralizadores de solo, utilizando fontes regionais de nutrientes. A isso se soma a utilização de microrganismos solubilizadores de nutrientes, que liberam ácidos orgânicos que aumentam a eficiência e aceleram a disponibilidade de nutrientes de fontes regionais de baixa solubilidade. Os dois em conjunto promovem a saúde do solo, conservando os recursos naturais e minimizando os impactos negativos sobre os ecossistemas. Assim, este estudo avaliou o desenvolvimento da cultivar de trigo BRS 264, utilizando remineralizadores de solo e fertilizantes regionais no manejo da fertilidade e produtos biológicos no controle de doenças e pragas. A análise incluiu a produtividade total e a viabilidade econômica, medidas por meio de índices de lucro bruto operacional. Além disso, foi realizada análise química do solo antes e após o cultivo. Os resultados revelaram um aumento de 14% na produtividade da cultivar BRS 264 em sistema irrigado com o manejo regenerativo, e uma redução de 27% nos custos totais por hectare em comparação ao manejo convencional. Os resultados demonstram uma redução substancial nos custos totais por hectare em comparação com o manejo convencional, sugerindo que essa abordagem é eficaz do ponto de vista agronômico e econômico. Esses resultados sugerem que as fontes naturais de nutrientes combinadas com produtos biológicos podem ser ferramentas eficazes no manejo da fertilidade do solo na cultura do trigo.

Palavras-chave:
controle biológico; viabilidade econômica; bioinsumos

1. Introduction

The pursuit of sustainability in agricultural practices has driven increasing research into the use of biological inputs (bioinputs), resulting in alternatives for modern, efficient, and sustainable agriculture. It is projected that by 2050, the global population will exceed 9.7 billion people, substantially increasing the demand for food. By 2030, it is imperative to reduce the number of people suffering from hunger, as this figure has been rising consistently over the past decade (FAO, 2022). Within this context, the concept of regenerative agriculture has recently gained prominence, emphasizing process-based approaches rather than product-based ones. This paradigm incorporates the use of local and regional tools, such as bioinputs and nutrient sources, aiming to enhance soil health, sequester carbon, promote biodiversity, and improve the quality of agricultural production (Giller et al., 2021; Newton et al., 2020; O’Donoghue et al., 2022; Schreefel et al., 2020).

Agricultural activity plays a fundamental role in national economic development, influencing not only the food sector but also the bioenergy industry. According to the Institute for Applied Economic Research (IPEA), Brazilian agribusiness generated a total revenue of USD 148.58 billion in 2023, with exports totaling USD 165.05 billion and imports reaching USD 16.47 billion (Ferreira et al., 2024). According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 2024), this represents a 15.1% increase in national agricultural productivity, directly contributing to a 2.9% increase in the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) compared to 2022.

Given the economic relevance of this sector, the implementation of methods that ensure high agricultural productivity is essential. In Brazil, the use of agrochemicals is widely adopted to achieve this goal, positioning the country as one of the world's largest consumers of these products (Paumgartten and Oliveira, 2020). However, these compounds are often applied indiscriminately, posing risks to public health and ecosystems. Additionally, their use entails high costs, limiting the productive capacity of agricultural systems. The country relies on more than 30 million tons of synthetic, highly water-soluble fertilizers, incurring costs exceeding USD 9 billion, which inflates production expenses and food prices (ANDA, 2020).

The use of natural-origin products such as biological inputs (bioinputs), soil remineralizers (RMs), and natural fertilizers has gained considerable attention in recent years (Munir et al., 2019, Souza et al., 2022; Theodoro et al., 2022). These technologies are based on biological processes or materials derived from plant, animal, or microbial sources, and are intended for use in agricultural, forestry, or aquaculture systems, including production, storage, or processing stages (Oliveira and Santos, 2023; Souza et al., 2022). The bioinput sector alone generated approximately R$ 1 billion in revenue between 2020 and 2021, indicating a clear expansion trend (Embrapa, 2023). There is, therefore, a growing need to develop regional alternative sources to meet soil nutrient demands and provide phytosanitary control products that do not harm the environment (Theodoro and Leonardos, 2011). In terms of environmental sustainability, the combination of RMs and mineral-solubilizing microorganisms represents a promising approach to reduce dependence on synthetic fertilizers and agrochemicals. This strategy contributes to soil health, the conservation of natural resources, and the mitigation of negative environmental impacts.

Rochagem, or rock powder application, is a technique that uses specific rock powders as soil remineralizers and nutrient suppliers, primarily aiming to reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers. This practice provides macro- and micronutrients depending on the rock type and positively influences soil fertility without disrupting environmental balance (Silva et al., 2026). It has strong sustainability potential as it utilizes mining byproducts, reduces environmental damage caused by indiscriminate chemical fertilizer use, enhances food quality, and lowers agribusiness production costs (Silveira et al., 2016).

Given the prolonged time required for mineral solubilization in RMs, research has been conducted to assess their applicability in long-cycle crops (Guelfi-Silva, 2012; Souza et al., 2013). However, studies have also evaluated their use in short-cycle crops to investigate the economic impact of rochagem technologies as an alternative or complement to conventional fertilization (Ferreira et al., 2009).

Other studies have examined methods to enhance RM solubilization, such as the use of chemical and organic acids, application techniques, and deployment in different cropping systems (Ferreira et al., 2009; Souza et al., 2013; Corilla Flores et al., 2023). Unlike studies focusing solely on the nutrient-supplying potential of RMs (Souza et al., 2013), the present study aims to explore optimized application strategies to improve the applicability of this technology, enhance productivity, and reduce costs, especially when combined with microorganisms.

Microorganisms play a direct role in the solubilization of RMs and regional fertilizers by excreting organic acids that mobilize essential minerals such as potassium and low-solubility phosphorus (Gyaneshwar et al., 2002; Penha, 2016; Vey et al., 2025). These acids increase phosphate solubility and reduce its adsorption to clay minerals, enhancing nutrient availability. Moreover, organic acids chelate metals such as iron and aluminum and serve as carbon sources for microbial populations, stimulating rhizosphere colonization and promoting root development (Silva, 2023).

In the context of phytosanitary management, microorganisms also serve as a key input in large-scale biological input production. Entomopathogenic microorganisms are particularly effective in controlling pests and diseases in major crops such as soybean, maize, beans, and cotton. In biological control programs, large-scale production and quality maintenance of natural enemies in laboratory conditions are critical for achieving effective and sustainable pest management (Postali Parra and Coelho, 2019).

Given that alternative inputs such as RMs and regional fertilizers yield positive effects on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils, they are considered essential tools in soil management. The high solubility of conventional synthetic fertilizers has significantly raised production costs in recent years. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the use of soil remineralizers and regional fertilizers in soil fertility management, as well as the use of biological products for pest and disease control, in comparison to conventional management in BRS 264 wheat cultivation under irrigated Cerrado conditions. Additionally, an economic feasibility analysis was conducted, comparing the costs and yields between alternative and conventional management practices. All implementation costs associated with both management models were accounted for and presented in the economic evaluation.

2. Material e Methods

2.1. Study site and experimental design

The experiment was conducted at the Agricultural Research Center for the Cerrado Region (Embrapa Cerrados), located in the Central Plateau of the Cerrado Biome (15°35'55.1"S, 47°42'27.4"W), between May and September 2022. The regional climate is classified as As (tropical savanna with dry summer) according to the Köppen system (Álvares et al., 2013), with an average annual air temperature of 22 °C and a mean annual rainfall of approximately 1,500 mm, mostly concentrated between October and March (Malaquias et al., 2010).

To characterize the soil’s physical and chemical properties, samples were collected at two depths: 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm. Analyses included macronutrients (P, H+Al, K, Ca, and Mg) and particle size distribution. The soil in the experimental area is classified as a Red Latosol, with 37% sand, 51% clay, and 12% silt in the 0–20 cm layer, and 32% sand, 52% clay, and 16% silt in the 20–40 cm layer, respectively (Santos et al., 2018).

The experimental design was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Treatments consisted of wheat plants cultivated under two distinct management systems: (i) Alternative management (1.55 ha), which utilized a soil remineralizer, potassium silicate, and reactive natural phosphate as correctives and natural nutrient sources, as well as biological inputs for disease, pest, and nematode control, nutrient solubilization, and nitrogen fixation in the soil; and (ii) Conventional management (1.95 ha), based on the use of water-soluble mineral fertilizers for soil fertility and chemical pesticides for the control of insect pests, diseases, and nematodes.

2.2. Cultivar and cultivation conditions

The wheat cultivar used in this study was BRS 264, developed and released by Embrapa Cerrados and Embrapa Wheat. This cultivar was selected due to its recognition as a well-established technological solution for irrigated wheat production in the Brazilian Cerrado. BRS 264 is a highly productive cultivar with desirable agronomic traits, including a super-early growth cycle, heading at approximately 40 days, and maturity at 110 days, and it has been widely accepted by the processing industry.

Wheat sowing was carried out on May 10, 2022. The seeding density ranged from 320 to 380 viable seeds per square meter, corresponding to approximately 55 to 65 viable seeds per linear meter, based on a row spacing of 17 cm. Sowing was performed using a mechanical seed-and-fertilizer drill, with 0.17 m between rows.

Soil preparation included disking to eliminate previous crop residues, which had been desiccated with an herbicide (glyphosate), followed by lime incorporation and furrow opening. Lime was applied at a rate of 465 kg/ha, based on the method of exchangeable aluminum (Al) neutralization or increasing exchangeable calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) levels, considering a critical level of 3.0 cmolc/dm³ for Ca + Mg. Fertilization was performed according to the chemical analysis of the soil, following the technical recommendations for wheat cultivation.

Phytosanitary management products were applied in accordance with the results of the Integrated Pest and Disease Monitoring (IPDM) conducted throughout the crop cycle. Irrigation was applied using a center-pivot sprinkler system, covering an area of 3.5 hectares. Irrigation scheduling was based on meteorological data, where crop evapotranspiration (ETc) was calculated as the product of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and the crop coefficient (Kc). The ETo estimates were obtained using the Penman-Monteith-FAO method, as proposed by Allen (1998), with data collected from a weather station installed near the experimental site. Irrigation was applied based on soil water balance, only when the crop reached the lower threshold of the Available Soil Water Capacity (ASWC), thereby maintaining optimal soil moisture for the crop’s potential development.

2.3. Biological products and regional inputs

For phytosanitary management in wheat cultivation, biological solutions developed by the biotechnology company Moara Bioestimulantes Agroambientais (Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil) were used. Seeds were treated with biological products and agrochemicals according to each treatment, following the manufacturer’s recommendations, and sown within 24 hours after treatment (Table 1).

Table 1
Products used in the phytosanitary management of BRS 264 wheat under alternative and conventional treatments.

Treatment	Product	Class	Active Ingredient Concentration	Dose (L/ha)	Application flow rate (L/ha)
Conventional	Chlorpyrifos	Inseticide	480.0 g/L	1.5	200
	Pyraclostrobin Epoxiconazole	Fungicide	133.0 g/L 50.0 g/L	2.0	200
	Polyether-polymethylsiloxane copolymer	Adjuvant	1,000 g/L	0.1	200
Alternative	Bacillus subtilis Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Bacillus pumilus	Biofungicide	3 x 109 CFU/mL	1.0	200
	Metarhizium anisopliae	Bioinsecticide	1 x 109 CFU/mL	1.0	200
	Mineral oil	Spreader	800 g/L	0.5	200

• Application rates and spray volumes were applied according to the manufacturers’ recommendations.

Phytosanitary management throughout the crop development cycle involved foliar applications: agrochemicals were applied in the conventional management system, while biological inputs (bioinputs) from Ekoa Life Sciences were used in the alternative management system (Table 2). The doses, active ingredient concentrations, application intervals, and number of applications followed the technical instructions provided in the product labels and were adjusted according to the results of the IPDM (Tables 1 and 2).

Table 2
Products used in the seed treatment of BRS 264 wheat under alternative and conventional treatments.

Treatment	Product	Class	Active Ingredient Concentration	Dose (L/ha)
Conventional	Pyraclostrobin Thiophanate-methyl Fipronil	Fungicide Inseticide	25.0 g/L 225.0 g/L 250.0 g/L	0.2
Alternative	Trichoderma harzianum	Biofungicide	1 x 109 CFU/mL	0.15
	Bacillus sp.	Inoculant	3 x 109 CFU/mL	0.3
	Bacillus subtilis Bacillus licheniformis Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Bacillus methylotrophicus	Bionematicide	3 x 109 CFU/mL	0.3

• Application rates followed the manufacturers’ recommendations.

The inputs used as regional fertilizers and soil remineralizers included: (i) Potassium silicate, applied as a source of potassium and silicon (containing 12% K₂O and 25% Si, primarily in the form of potassium feldspar, with a particle size of 100% passing through a 0.075 mm mesh; application rate: 4.0 tons/ha); (ii) Basalt, used as a source of calcium, magnesium, and silicon (containing 8% Ca and 4% MgO; application rate: 3.0 tons/ha); and (iii) Reactive natural phosphate, used as a source of phosphorus, calcium, and silicon (containing 2% P₂O₅, 1% CaO, and 3% Si; application rate: 2.0 tons/ha). In the conventional soil fertility management treatment, the fertilizer formulation 04–30–16 was used (containing 4% nitrogen, 30% phosphorus, and 16% potassium; application rate: 0.35 tons/ha), supplemented with 1% boron, as recommended for the crop. All fertilizers, regional sources, soil remineralizer, and conventional formulation, were broadcast and incorporated into the soil in their respective treatment plots.

2.4. Yield assessment and economic feasibility analysis

To determine crop yield, five samples of 7 m² each (5 rows spaced 17 cm apart and 10 m long) were collected from each treatment. Grain moisture content was measured using the AL-102 grain moisture meter (Agrologic, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil), and the thousand-seed weight (TSW) was determined. Subsequently, grain yield per treatment was estimated.

The economic feasibility analysis was based on a comparison of costs and benefits between the alternative and conventional management systems. This assessment involved a detailed accounting of all costs associated with the implementation of each management model. Reference values for wheat production costs in the Brazilian Cerrado region were used, considering edaphoclimatic conditions, irrigation management, and input use. The analysis included the gross operating profit, calculated as EBITDA (Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization).

2.5. Statistical analysis

Based on the results obtained, the efficiency of bioinputs and regional nutrient sources was evaluated under field conditions, with respect to the feasibility of the technology and its applicability to wheat crop management. The experimental data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), under the assumptions of independence, homoscedasticity, and normal distribution of residuals. When significant differences were detected, treatment means were compared using Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test at a 5% significance level. All statistical analyses were performed using the R software, version 3.2.2 (www.r-project.org), as the analytical platform.

3. Results and Discussion

After harvesting the BRS 264 wheat crop, a yield increase was observed in the alternative (regenerative) treatment compared to the conventional management. The thousand seed weight (TSW) did not differ significantly between treatments (P = 0.33) (Figure 1A). However, the biological management approach, consisting of seed treatment with microbial inoculants, use of regional fertilizers at planting, and foliar application of biological products for the control of foliar diseases and insect pests, resulted in a significant 14.2% increase in crop yield (P = 0.02), from 4,231.70 kg/ha under conventional management to 4,809.72 kg/ha under regenerative management (Figure 1B).

Figure 1
Thousand seed weight (TSW) (A) and grain yield of BRS 264 wheat (B) under conventional and alternative management treatments. Lowercase letters indicate statistically significant differences according to Tukey’s test (P < 0.05).

Regarding the soil physicochemical analysis conducted to assess nutrient levels before and after wheat cultivation under both alternative and conventional treatments, the results indicate a balanced distribution of soil nutrients and properties, even after the application of the respective treatments (Table 3).

Table 3
Standard soil analysis of the experimental area before wheat cultivation and after the application of conventional and alternative treatments.

Treatment	pH	Soil exchange complex						Value				P disponible	OM	FC
	H2O	K+	Na+	Ca2+	Mg2+	Al3+	H+Al	SB	CEC	V	m	(Mehlich)	g/kg1
		cmolc/dm3								%		mg/dm3
Initial soil	5.9	0.13	0.16	0.7	0.6	0.2	4.6	1.69	6.21	27	14	3.5	54.4	32.6
Conventional	6.4	0.06	0.14	1.4	0.6	0.0	2.0	1.9	3.9	50	0	1.8	54.4	32.6
Alternative	7.1	0.17	0.86	2.2	0.8	0	1.6	3.88	5.5	71	0	3.2	50.6	21.6

• SB = sum of exchangeable bases; t = effective cation exchange capacity (CEC); T = total cation exchange capacity (total CEC); V = base saturation; m = aluminum saturation; OM = organic matter; FC = field capacity.

Overall, the soil prior to planting exhibited a base saturation (V) value of 27%, classifying it as dystrophic, with a moderately detrimental aluminum saturation level of 14%. The cation exchange capacity (CEC) was 6.21 cmolc/dm³, considered moderate, and the organic matter (OM) content was high (Osaki, 1991; Sousa, 2004).

The adoption of the regenerative production system led to a substantial reduction in active acidity, increasing soil pH in water from 5.9 to 7.1. This shift enhanced the availability of Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Cu, and available P when compared to both the initial soil condition and the conventional treatment (Table 3). The increase in pH influenced the reduction of potential acidity (H+Al), which decreased by 57% compared to the initial soil and by 65% when compared to the conventional treatment. Exchangeable acidity (Al³⁺) also decreased, which is critical as high levels of aluminum in soil can inhibit root growth, compromise nutrient and water uptake, and ultimately reduce plant productivity and drought resilience (Taiz et al., 2017).

The alternative treatment also positively influenced the soil's cation exchange capacity, increasing negative charges by 11.4% relative to the conventional system. This effect is attributed to the availability of primary minerals in the soil, enhanced by microbial activity (Swoboda et al., 2022), which facilitates the release of ions such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and K⁺, thereby boosting the CEC. Previous studies also demonstrated that rock powder application over two years improved CEC as a secondary benefit. Moreover, pH elevation following the application of rock powders has been reported in other studies due to the high content of mafic minerals (Santos, 2020; Silva et al., 2017).

As for macronutrients, slight increases in Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ levels were observed after the alternative treatment, likely resulting from the input of alkaline metals and subsequent leaching, which increases H⁺ and Al³⁺ in the exchange complex, replacing Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ in solution. However, regional input sources can maintain adequate levels of these nutrients and reduce potential acidity, provided the pH remains between 5.5 and 7.0 (Guimarães et al., 2022).

In the Cerrado region, highly weathered soils and seasonal heavy rainfall contribute to nutrient leaching, especially with water-soluble fertilizers. Swoboda et al. (2022) and Samantray et al. (2022) highlight that regional nutrient sources, once weathered, exert residual effects across crop cycles, contributing to the formation of secondary minerals and increasing CEC. They also reduce nutrient leaching, notably potassium. The use of regional fertilizers enhances soil fertility, improves nutrient availability, and supports long-term conservation of natural resources by providing residual effects in the soil. These amendments improve soil conditions for plant development by increasing pH, CEC, and nutrient availability while reducing aluminum saturation (Silva et al., 2013).

Regarding available phosphorus, no significant differences were observed between the alternative treatment and initial soil conditions, indicating that P levels remained stable even after wheat cultivation. This stability is beneficial for crop development and helps reduce production costs associated with phosphorus fertilization. P availability is closely linked to soil pH: in acidic environments, low-solubility aluminum phosphates dominate, whereas in higher pH conditions, calcium phosphates, also poorly soluble, become more prevalent (Ernani et al., 2000; Nolla and Anghinoni, 2006, cited by Nunes and Rezende, 2015). By correcting soil pH, the alternative treatment enhanced P availability in the soil solution, supporting plant nutrition.

It is known that approximately 70% of all phosphorus added to soil is not absorbed by plant roots and remains in unavailable forms (Pavinato et al., 2020; Wan et al., 2020). Through biogeochemical processes, soil microbiota associated with the rhizosphere promotes the solubilization of poorly soluble nutrients (Oliveira Paiva et al., 2022). These rhizobacteria produce organic acids, phytohormones, and microbial metabolites that, when interacting with soil nutrients, facilitate the solubilization of phosphorus and other nutrients (Lee et al., 2012; Farahat et al., 2020; Miljakovic et al., 2022). Thus, biological products containing beneficial bacteria and fungi represent a valuable tool for optimizing nutrient use efficiency.

Some bacterial genera, such as Bacillus spp., produce phytohormones that stimulate root growth, increasing water and nutrient uptake efficiency (Jiang et al., 2022; Khan et al., 2009; Matos et al., 2017; Sharon et al., 2016). The bioinput used in wheat cultivation contained a complex of Bacillus sp. bacteria which are known for promoting plant growth, enhancing nutrient bioavailability, and inducing resistance mechanisms against drought stress. These bacteria were isolated from soil samples and selected based on their ability to solubilize natural nutrient sources; notably, they demonstrated the simultaneous solubilization of natural sources containing both phosphorus and potassium. According to Bavaresco et al. (2020), plant growth-promoting bacteria colonize roots and release metabolites that improve root biomass and nutrient uptake. These species can mobilize residual soil phosphorus. Previous studies have shown positive effects on crops such as sugarcane, maize, and soybean using biological inputs composed of Bacillus and Priestia spp. (Antunes et al., 2017; Breedt et al., 2017; Bavaresco et al., 2020; Mendes et al., 2020). Tahir et al. (2017) demonstrated that combining phosphate-solubilizing bacteria with a bio-organic fertilizer increased wheat yields by 54.3% and 83.3% for the Galaxy-2013 and Punjab-2011 cultivars, respectively. Therefore, combining natural nutrient sources with phosphate-solubilizing bacteria is a sustainable strategy for enhancing wheat productivity with lower input costs.

The overuse of fungicidal compounds in modern agriculture has led to disruptions in plant health and soil microbial communities. Consequently, a biofungicide containing Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens was employed. These species produce antimicrobial compounds (e. g., lipopeptides), enzymes, and other bioactive molecules that inhibit pathogenic microorganisms. Studies have shown that strains of B. pumilus, B. subtilis, and B. amyloliquefaciens produce surfactants, hydrolytic enzymes (chitinases and cellulases), and volatile organic compounds that induce resistance in plants against pathogens such as Arthrobotrys conoides, Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Rhizoctonia solani, Fagopyrum esculentum, and Alternaria solani (Dobrzyński et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2020). In another study, the B. pumilus strain CCIBP-C5 produced chitinases with antifungal activity against Pseudocercospora fijiensis (Cruz-Martín et al., 2023). The B. subtilis strain NJ-8 exhibited antimicrobial activity against Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in rice crops (Yang et al., 2009). Therefore, the bacteria present in the biofungicide used in the alternative treatment demonstrated antifungal activity and contributed to activating plant defense systems, preventing pathogen development in wheat.

The bionematicide used for nematode management in the rhizosphere contained four bacterial species: Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus methylotrophicus, Bacillus licheniformis, and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. These naturally occurring soil bacteria are effective against plant-parasitic nematodes, producing bacteriocins, enzymes, and nematicidal secondary metabolites capable of colonizing the rhizosphere and degrading the cell walls of juvenile nematodes and eggs (Dinardo-Miranda et al., 2022). Du et al. (2022) showed that B. licheniformis strain JF-22 had nematicidal activity in tomato crops against Meloidogyne incognita, including the production of volatile compounds such as 2,3-butanediol. The B. methylotrophicus strain R2-2 also reduced gall nematode severity in tomato (Zhou et al., 2016). Moreover, B. subtilis and B. licheniformis were effective in reducing Meloidogyne javanica and Pratylenchus spp. in sugarcane, even when used in combination with chemical nematicides such as carbosulfan (Dinardo-Miranda et al., 2022).

To assess the economic feasibility of implementing biological and natural agricultural practices using bioinputs and regional nutrient sources, a cost-benefit analysis was conducted. Operational and application costs were considered equal for both treatments. The analysis focused on three cost centers: phytosanitary management, soil fertility, and seed treatment (Table 4). Input prices for both agrochemical and biological products were obtained from the same specialized suppliers, based on average market prices.

Table 4
Economic feasibility analysis highlighting the product classes, active ingredients, and application rates of agrochemicals and soluble fertilizers used in the conventional treatment, and the biological products and natural fertilizers used in the alternative treatment.

Cost Center	Treatment	Class	Active ingredient	Dose (L or kg/ha)	Cost (R$/ha)	Percentage (%)
Phytosanitary Management	Conventional	Fungicide	Pyraclostrobin 133 g/L	2.0	R$ 156.00	35%
			Epoxiconazole 50 g/L
		Insecticide	Chlorpyrifos 480 g/L	1.5	R$ 270.00	60%
		Adjuvant	Polyether-polymethylsiloxane copolymer 1,000 g/L	0.1	R$ 17.66	5%
	Alternative	Biofungicide	Bacillus sp. 3 × 109 CFU/mL	1.0	R$ 150.00	52%
		Bioinsecticide	Metarhizium anisopliae 1 × 109 conidia/mL	1.0	R$ 120.00	42%
		Spreader	Mineral oil 800 g/L	0.5	R$ 18.75	6%
Subtotal				Conventional	R$ 443.66	-
				Alternative	R$ 287.66	-
Soil Fertility	Conventional	Nutrient	04-30-16 + boron	350	R$ 2,950.00	100%
	Alternative	Nutrient	Reactive phosphate	2,000	R$ 480.00	22%
		Nutrient	Potassium silicate	4,000	R$ 1,420.00	66%
		Nutrient	Basalt	3,000	R$ 240.00	12%
Subtotal				Conventional	R$ 2,950.00	-
				Alternative	R$ 2,140.00	-
Seed treatment	Conventional	Fungicide Insecticide	Thiophanate-methyl 225 g/L Fipronil 250 g/L Pyraclostrobin 25 g/L	0.2	R$ 85.74	100%
	Alternative	Biofungicide	Trichoderma harzianum 1 x 109 conidia/mL	0.2	R$ 36.02	28%
		Inoculant	Bacillus sp. 3 x 109 CFU/mL	0.3	R$ 56.29	43%
		Bionematicide	Bacillus sp. 3 x 109 CFU/mL	0.3	R$ 38.28	29%
Subtotal				Conventional	R$ 85.74	-
				Alternative	R$ 130.59	-

• Production costs per hectare were organized into three distinct cost centers: phytosanitary management, soil fertility, and seed treatment.

The results indicate that in the cost centers for Soil Fertility and Phytosanitary Management, the alternative treatment required lower investments compared to the conventional treatment (Table 4). The most substantial cost difference was observed in the Phytosanitary Management cost center: R$443.66/ha for the conventional treatment (using agrochemicals) versus R$287.66/ha for the alternative treatment (using biological products). This difference was primarily attributed to the cost of the chemical insecticide chlorpyrifos (480 g/L), priced at R$270.00/ha in the conventional treatment. This input alone accounted for 60% of the total phytosanitary cost according to the ABC cost classification, which categorizes items based on their economic impact (Table 4).

A 27% reduction in production cost per hectare for irrigated BRS 264 wheat cultivation was observed when the alternative management system was adopted. According to the classification of investment centers based on ABC curve percentages, soil fertility accounted for 62.1% (R$ 2,950.00/ha) and 83.6% (R$ 2,140.40/ha) of the total production costs for the conventional and alternative treatments, respectively. Thus, adopting a regenerative system that leverages natural resources such as soil remineralizers (RMs) leads to a significant reduction in production costs while improving soil fertility, structure, and biodiversity conservation in productive environments.

Financial and economic planning for an agro-industrial activity, when grounded in real conditions and socio-economic context, enables the estimation of associated expenses, expected revenues, and, most importantly, the projected return on investment. Based on the average market price of wheat (R$ 1,248.66 per ton), as reported by CEPEA/ESALQ for the 2023/2024 harvest in the Paraná region (USP, 2024), the alternative treatment area yielded 4,809.72 kg/ha, resulting in an estimated gross revenue of R$ 6,005.70 per hectare. Therefore, considering the production investment costs, an EBITDA of R$ 3,447.45 per hectare was achieved. EBITDA represents earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization, i.e., the gross operating profit (Alcalde et al., 2013). Hence, based on wheat market prices, the alternative treatment resulted in 93.7% higher profit compared to conventional management.

It is important to emphasize that the technology presented here can be applied in various soils and regions, including the Brazilian Cerrado. With balanced macro- and micronutrient levels, crop health improves, resulting in higher yields and increased resilience to diseases and environmental stress. Understanding the agronomic efficiency of regional nutrient sources in wheat production systems in the Brazilian Cerrado offers producers new options for soil fertility management. The reduction in wheat production costs allows farmers to reallocate resources toward other components of the production model, such as application technologies, remote pest monitoring, and precision equipment.

4. Conclusion

The regenerative management approach increased the productivity of BRS 264 wheat under irrigated conditions by 14% compared to conventional management. Soil analyses revealed that nutrient levels remained balanced after harvest across both conventional and alternative treatments. Thus, the use of regional nutrient sources, such as silicate-based mineral fertilizers and natural phosphates, proves to be an effective tool for managing soil fertility in agricultural systems. Moreover, the combination of regional nutrient sources with biological products enhances the dissolution of minerals present in rock powders. The economic feasibility study demonstrated a 27% reduction in total production cost per hectare in favor of regenerative management over conventional methods. The results also indicate reduced environmental impacts and positive economic and social outcomes, as the approach relies on locally and regionally sourced solutions. Additionally, the use of bioinputs proved effective for disease and insect pest control when compared to conventional management. The application of biological-based technologies supports a more sustainable, natural, and cost-effective agricultural strategy, one that promotes the use of natural resources and contributes to environmental balance.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by the FINEP project “R&D&I Network on Remineralizers and Agro-minerals (REMAg)”, Ref. 1541/22 and FINEP project “Bioprospecting of Bioremineralizing Microorganisms for More Efficient Use of Alternative and Natural Sources of Phosphorus and Potassium” Ref. 0199/23. Special thanks are extended to Embrapa Cerrados, Moara Bioestimulantes Agroambientais Ltda, and the Graduate Program in Environmental Sciences at the University of Brasília. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Data Availability Statement

The data analyzed in this study are not publicly available through any external repository. All datasets supporting the findings are fully presented within the article itself.

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Edited by

• Editor:
  Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  24 July 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  19 Nov 2025
• Accepted
  07 May 2026