Catch-and-release effects over reproductive aspects of a Neotropical fish

Efeitos do pesque e solte sobre aspectos reprodutivos de um peixe Neotropical

Abstract

The utilization of fishery resources through recreational fishing has been increasing in developing countries such as Brazil. Consequently, the management of this activity requires attention, since inadequate practices may lead to negative impacts on exploited fish populations. One management alternative widely adopted in several countries is catch-and-release (CR), used as a conservation tool for sport fish stocks. In this context, evaluating the influence of CR on reproductive aspects is essential, as the effectiveness of this measure relies on the assumption that released fish survive and contribute reproductively to populations. This study experimentally tested the hypothesis that CR does not exert negative effects on the reproduction of Neotropical fish. Considering that stress, gonadal condition, and overall health are critical determinants of gamete quality, spawning success, and reproductive output, the parameters assessed included mortality, condition factor, gonadosomatic index, gonadal development stages, and occurrence of spawning in Astyanax lacustris subjected to CR. The experiment was conducted in ponds with isolated population groups, comprising four groups subjected to CR management and four control groups without fishing activity. No significant differences were observed between CR and control fish for the evaluated variables. Even though no reproductive activity was observed in either group, possibly due to the reduced experimental period, these results provide evidence that CR exerts negligible immediate impacts on the reproduction of some Neotropical fish species, supporting its potential application in management programs aimed at the sustainable use of fishery resources.

Keywords:
Astyanax lacustris; conservation; gonadal development; recreational fishing; fishery resources

Resumo

A utilização dos recursos pesqueiros por meio da pesca recreativa vem crescendo em países em desenvolvimento, como o Brasil. Consequentemente, o manejo dessa atividade requer atenção, uma vez que práticas inadequadas podem gerar impactos negativos sobre as populações de peixes exploradas. Uma alternativa de manejo amplamente adotada em diversos países é o uso do pesque-e-solte (catch-and-release, CR), empregado como ferramenta de conservação dos estoques de peixes esportivos. Nesse contexto, a avaliação da influência do CR sobre aspectos reprodutivos é essencial, pois a efetividade dessa medida depende do pressuposto de que os peixes liberados sobrevivem e contribuem reprodutivamente para as populações exploradas. Este estudo testou experimentalmente a hipótese de que o CR não exerce efeitos negativos sobre a reprodução de peixes Neotropicais. Considerando que o estresse, a condição gonadal e a saúde geral dos peixes são determinantes críticos da qualidade dos gametas, do sucesso da desova e da produção reprodutiva, os parâmetros avaliados incluíram mortalidade, fator de condição, índice gonadossomático, estágios de desenvolvimento gonadal e ocorrência de desova em Astyanax lacustris submetidos ao CR. O experimento foi conduzido em tanques com grupos populacionais isolados, constituindo quatro grupos submetidos ao manejo de CR e quatro grupos controle sem atividade de pesca. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os peixes submetidos ao CR e os controles nas variáveis avaliadas. Esses resultados fornecem evidências de que o CR exerce impactos imediatos irrelevantes sobre a reprodução de algumas espécies de peixes neotropicais, indicando que essa prática tem potencial para ser aplicada em programas de manejo voltados ao uso sustentável dos recursos pesqueiros.

Palavras-chave:
Astyanax lacustris; conservação; desenvolvimento gonadal; pesca recreativa; recursos pesqueiros

1. Introduction

The use of fish resources through recreational fishing has social, economic and environmental importance. This activity has grown in number of practitioners in recent decades, both in developed and developing countries, such as Brazil (Cooke and Schramm, 2007; Barroco and Freitas, 2014). There is a tendency for commercial fishing to be replaced by recreational fishing in developing countries (FAO, 2012). Therefore, the management of recreational fishing activities deserves attention, as inadequate management of this sector can generate negative impacts on the exploited fish populations (Albano and Vasconcelos, 2013).

In this context, an alternative that has been applied in fisheries resource management programs in several countries is the use of catch and release (CR) as a tool for the conservation of stocks of sport fish species (Lucy and Studholme, 2002; Bartholomew and Bohnsack, 2005; Cooke and Schramm, 2007; Cooke et al., 2013). On the other hand, the effectiveness of such management programs depends on achieving high survival rates and minimizing negative health consequences for fish after release (Cooke et al., 2002; Cooke and Suski, 2005). Furthermore, Griffin et al. (2025) demonstrated that the effects of catch-and-release extend beyond individual fish to the population level, driving shifts in spatial dynamics by altering movement patterns and distribution, with fish increasingly avoiding areas of high fishing pressure.

In Brazil, the impacts of catch and release on fish are still not well known and can cause the death of released individuals (Chaves and Freire, 2012; Lennox et al., 2015). Furthermore, this practice can cause sublethal disorders, such as physiological disturbances, behavioral changes, growth deficiencies and reproductive failures (Cooke et al., 2002; Cooke and Suski, 2005). Therefore, it is necessary to know and identify the effects of this activity to make it more efficient, to achieve conservation goals (Sanches, 2015).

The influence of CR on fish reproduction is essential, since the effectiveness of this measure as a management action assumes that the released fish will survive and contribute reproductively to sustaining the exploited populations (Arlinghaus et al., 2007). It remains uncertain whether CR can inhibit or harm fish reproduction or health (Hall et al., 2017), or even produce consequences at the population level (Griffin et al., 2025). Therefore, understanding the effects of this type of fishing on fish is very important to expand management alternatives aimed at conservation (Richard et al., 2013).

For CR to be effective as a conservation measure, it must not compromise species’ net reproduction. Accordingly, this study experimentally tested the hypothesis that CR exerts no effect on the reproductive aspects of Neotropical fish. Considering that stress, gonadal condition, and overall health are critical determinants of gamete quality, spawning success, and reproductive output, the parameters assessed included mortality, condition factor, gonadosomatic index, gonadal development stages, and occurrence of spawning in Astyanax lacustris (Lütken 1875) (Acestrorhamphidae) subjected to CR were evaluated.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study location and origin of fish

The study was carried out in accordance with the Animal Use Ethics Committee (CEUA) of the State University of Western Paraná (UNIOESTE), Toledo campus. One thousand adult Astyanax lacustris individuals (500 females and 500 males) were acquired from a commercial fish farm in the municipality of Marechal Cândido Rondon, state of Paraná. The fish were transferred and stocked in culture tanks at the Institute of Research in Environmental Aquaculture – InPAA, belonging to UNIOESTE (Figure 1).

Figure 1
Study location: Environmental Aquaculture Research Institute - InPAA, Toledo PR (1); design (2); and experimental stages (3).

The yellowtail lambari or tambiú, A. lacustris, belonging to the order Characiformes, was chosen as a model for evaluating the effects of catch-and-release on the reproduction of Neotropical fish. Species of the genus Astyanax (Baird & Girard 1854) present characteristics such as a short life cycle; natural reproduction in tanks without the need for hormonal induction; the ability to reach sexual maturity at approximately four months of age; the ability to spawn throughout the year, with an average of four annual spawnings; and sexual dimorphism during the reproductive period, which favors the identification of males and females (Garuti, 2003; Baldisseroto and Gomes, 2005). Therefore, they are frequently used as experimental biological models for scientific studies (Drummond et al., 2000; Felizardo et al., 2012; Gomes et al., 2013; Yasui et al., 2015), mainly related to biology (Chehade et al., 2014), ecotoxicology (Bettim et al., 2015) and reproductive physiology (Pereira-Filho et al., 2011; Gomes et al., 2013; Costa et al., 2014; Jesus et al., 2017; Adolfi et al., 2015; Brambila-Souza, 2015; Gomes, 2015; Yasui et al., 2015).

The fish used in the experiment were quarantined at InPAA for two months, during which they were fed and inspected daily to observe mortality, seeking to isolate damage caused by the transport and handling procedure (Sanches and Piana, 2019). After this period, the fish were distributed into 8 tanks of 12 m² with 48 females and 48 males in each tank (Figure 1). To prevent the entry of fish and other predators, as well as the escape of individuals from the population groups, the tanks were covered with anti-bird netting (50 mm mesh) and had the water inlets and outlets protected by screens with approximately 3 mm mesh. The experiment was carried out between February and May 2019.

2.2. Experimental design

To control possible spatial interferences related to the positioning of the experimental units, a randomized block design was used, with four tanks per block (Figure 1). In each block, two tanks were randomly selected to simulate fisheries management consisting only of the CR, while the other two served as controls (C), without any fishing activity. After the distribution of the fish, 15 days were reserved for observation of mortality and then fish collections and experimental fishing began.

Based on previous experiments, changes in fish behavior were observed in a pond to assess the impacts of catch-and-release. After a fish was caught and released, the initial behavior of the other fish, which was to attack the food (bait), changed, and the number of attacks on the bait and catches decreased. Thus, it is assumed that the stimulus of catch-and-release would be affecting the entire confined population. Therefore, we chose to assess the population as a whole and not the individual that was caught and released. This approach is plausible, given that social stress and chemical cues released by handled fish can induce stress responses in non-captured conspecifics (Barcellos et al., 2011; Crane et al., 2022). Research has shown that chemical communication in aquatic environments plays a central role in modulating social interactions and propagating disturbances (Kamio et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2021).

Based on this assumption, we sought to evaluate the effects caused by catch-and-release at the population level on the parameters assessed. To this end, four males and four females were collected every two weeks from each tank, over a period of 60 days, resulting in five collections. In the intervals between fish collections, experimental fishing sessions lasting 30 minutes were carried out in the CR tanks every three days, checking for possible short-term deaths (Pollock and Pine III, 2007). At the end of the experiment, the tanks were emptied and the fish were removed for counting, checking for mortality and possible occurrence of offspring (Figure 1).

During the experiment, the tanks were inspected and the fish were fed daily to observe possible death of individuals. The physical and chemical variables of the water were also measured, which remained within acceptable limits (Temperature: 23.7 and 26.9 °C; Dissolved Oxygen: 3.8 and 5.5 mg/L; pH: 7.07 and 7.98) for the survival and cultivation of the species (Garuti, 2003).

2.3. Fishing and fish collection

The fishing protocol used was hooking the fish; followed by a 30-second fight; removing the fish from the water; exposing it to air for one minute, during which the sex of the fish was identified and the capture recorded; releasing the fish back into the tank. Fight time was determined from the apparent exhaustion average time for the species, obtained from a pilot experiment. Air exposure time (AET), during which the recreational angler keeps the fish out of the water while handling, photographing, and releasing, is a critical factor for individual survival. A study conducted with the Neotropical fish species Salminus brasiliensis (Cuvier, 1816) demonstrated survival rates above 95%, reaching 100% in situations with AET shorter than 2 minutes (Sanches and Piana, 2019). The equipment used in the fishing was sets consisting of a bamboo pole with an average length of 2 m, 15 lb nylon line, a J-hook with barbs and earthworms as bait.

In the biweekly fish collections, a fishing net was used, and four males and four females were randomly selected from the fish captured. After removal from the tanks, the fish were euthanized in a benzocaine solution (250 mg/L) and then the total and standard length (Lt and Ls in centimeters) and weight (Wt in grams) were recorded. The females had their gonads removed, weighed (Wg) and fixed in a 10% buffered formalin solution (phosphate buffer solution). After 72h, the solution was replaced with 70% alcohol to hydrate the organs. At the end of the collections, the gonads were prepared for histological analysis and identification of the degree of maturation.

In both situations (fishing and fish collection) sexual differentiation was made through the presence of roughness in the anal fin, consisting of spicules in males, while the anal fin of females was smooth in appearance, as well as by morphological differences such as body size (females considerably larger than males) according to Garuti (2003).

2.4. Analysis of the gonads

To assess the stage of gonadal maturation, the ovaries were sectioned in the medial cranial portion and processed individually. The samples were dehydrated in increasing series of alcohol, diaphanized in xylene and embedded in Paraplast® to form the blocks. The blocks with the gonads were cut with a microtome at a thickness of 5 μm and placed on a glass slide, where they were stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin (HE) and mounted in Permount®.

The classification of the gonadal maturation stage was based on modifications in the germinal epithelium. Through these modifications, animals can be classified into five reproductive phases: immature, developing, capable of releasing gametes (mature), in regression and in regeneration (Brown-Peterson et al., 2011), and this scale is flexible enough to be used in Neotropical fish species (Quagio-Grassiotto et al., 2013).

2.5. Condition factor and gonadosomatic index

Using the values ​​recorded for Lt, Ls and Wt of all individuals and Wg of females, the condition factor for males (K1 = Wt/Ltb; b = angular coefficient of the regression between Wt/Lt) and the somatic condition factor for females (K2 = Wc/Ltb; Wc = Wt-Wg) were calculated, seeking to evaluate the degree of momentary well-being of the fish (Agostinho et al., 1990; Vazzoler, 1996). The condition factor is a quantitative indicator of the degree of momentary well-being of the fish; it can vary according to the sexual maturity of the individual, among other factors, by the variation in the weights of the gonads (Gomiero et al., 2010).

To compare the proportion of gonads in relation to total body weight, the gonadosomatic index of females (IGS = Wg/Wt*100) was calculated. This is auxiliary data in determining the stage of the reproductive cycle, since the maturation of reproductive cells occurs proportionally to the increase in gonad weight. The greater the proportion of the ovary in relation to the body, the closer the fish is to spawning (Vazzoler, 1996).

2.6. Assessment of mortality and occurrence of offspring

The determination of individual deaths occurred based on daily observation of the tanks and counting of fish at the end of the experiment. In the event of any deaths being recorded, the mortality rate would be calculated. The occurrence of offspring and juveniles of the species was also determined based on counting and identification of adult individuals at the end of the experimental period.

2.7. Data analysis

With the values ​​recorded for K1, K2, and IGS, comparisons of these characteristics were made between the fishing groups and the controls through Analysis of Variance for Repeated Measures (ANOVA-RM), for each characteristic individually, with a significance level of 5%. To verify the reliability of the ANOVA-RM results, the assumptions about the residuals were checked by applying the Levene homogeneity of variances test, the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, and the Mauchley sphericity test. Once the assumptions were met, the ANOVA-RM results were interpreted (Scheiner and Gurevitch, 2001). All statistical analyses were performed using the Statistica 7.1 software (StatSoft Inc. Statistica, 2005).

After classifying the maturation stages of the female ovaries, it was noted that there was minimal distinction between the reproductive phases of the fish, so no statistical test was applied; only what was observed was described.

3. Results

No effect was identified between the blocks for the analyses performed, nor did any individual die in either the fishing or control tanks. During the experiment, the quantities of fish captured in the four CR tanks were: 26 (15 females and 11 males), 26 (19 females and 7 males), 33 (21 females and 12 males), and 27 (19 females and 8 males).

The somatic condition factor of females did not differ between the CR and C populations, with values ​​decreasing over time, suggesting that the gonads were initially at a spawning stage (mature) and began to regress over time in both groups (Table 1, Figure 2). Regarding the condition factor of males, no differences were found between the fished and non-fished populations, with the data obtained not allowing the identification of significant differences between treatments and over the time of the experiment (Table 1, Figure 2).

Table 1
Results of the repeated measures analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) for the gonadosomatic index (IGS) and condition factor (K) in females (♀) and males (♂). Significant effects in bold.

Effect	K ♀			K ♂			GSI
	DF	F	p	DF	F	p	DF	F	P
Treatmentsa	1	2.32	0.14	1	0.01	0.93	1	3.27	0.08
Blocksa	1	0.26	0.61	1	2.25	0.15	1	0.54	0.47
Treatments*Blocksa	1	0.14	0.71	1	0.03	0.87	1	0.00	0.95
Timeb	4	16.76	<0.01	4	3.25	0.01	4	18.29	<0.01
Time*Treatmentsb	4	0.33	0.86	4	1.88	0.12	4	0.64	0.63
Time*Blocksb	4	0.93	0.45	4	0.37	0.83	4	0.83	0.51
Time*Treatments*Blocksb	4	0.32	0.87	4	1.51	0.21	4	0.21	0.93

• ^a
  The degrees of freedom (DF) for the error term in the between-subjects analysis are 27, 26, and 27, respectively.
• ^b
  The degrees of freedom (DF) for the error term in the within-subjects analysis are 108, 104, and 108, respectively.

Figure 2
Average± 95% confidence interval for values of: A - Male condition factor (K1); B - Female condition factor (K2); C - Female Gonadosomatic Index (IGS), for Astyanax lacustris subjected to catch and release and control, over the 60 experimental days.

The gonadosomatic index (GSI) of females did not differ between the CR and C populations values ​​decreased over time, indicating a possible beginning of regression from the mature stage to the immature stage for both groups (Table 1, Figure 2).

In total, 159 A. lacustris ovary samples were evaluated, the vast majority of samples (157) were in the reproductive phase of “fit to spawn”, whose characteristics include germ cells in various stages of development, such as oogonia, pre-vitellogenic oocytes, oocytes with initial yolk deposition, but with a predominance of fully developed oocytes (Figure 3).

Figure 3
Stages of gonadal development of the ovaries, 40x magnification. A: Mature ovary, ready to spawn: n: nucleus; ov: vitellogenic oocyte; opv: pre-vitellogenic oocyte. B: Ovary in regression: opv: pre-vitellogenic oocyte; vs: blood vessel; oa: atretic oocytes; *: ovarian lumen; →: lamellae.

Only two samples recorded in different CR tanks at the final collection were identified in transition from the “spawnable” phase to the “regression” phase. These samples had characteristics that could be attributed to both phases; however, due to the reduced size of the ovary, presence of large blood vessels, atretic oocytes and apparent increase in the number of pre-vitellogenic oocytes, it was possible to treat these samples as females in “regression” (Figure 3).

No evidence of population growth or spawning was identified. At the end of the experiment, no young individuals were found, and no post-ovulatory follicular complexes were observed in any ovary, which would indicate “active spawning” in either group.

4. Discussion

Fish females from populations subjected to catch-and-release (CR) fisheries management did not show any statistically significant changes in their welfare compared to control populations (C). These indicators remained similar in males throughout the experiment. In this context, Hall et al. (2017) reported that the feeding and condition of golden perch, Macquaria ambigua (Richardson, 1845), in tanks subjected to CR were better than in tanks free from fishing activity. The lack of variation in the somatic condition factor of females between groups is also considered an indication that there were no differences in the stage of gonadal development of individuals.

CR was not a stressor capable of influencing gonadal maturation and regression of fish, as no differences were found in the gonadosomatic index and gonadal maturation stage between CR and C populations, and no spawning was identified in any group, possible due to the limited experimental period. The lack of differentiation in gonadal development between CR and C groups was also observed by Hall et al. (2017) in golden perch, Macquaria ambigua, and by Lowerre-Barbieri et al. (2003) for common snook, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch, 1792). Furthermore, Lowerre-Barbieri et al. (2003) reported that female common snook subjected to CR did not abandon school formations for spawning.

None of the parameters evaluated, namely body condition of individuals (K), gonadosomatic index (GSI) and classification of gonadal stages, indicated the influence of stress caused by CR on the reproductive aspects of A. lacustris at the population level. Only two fish in the final collection were classified as being in regression, both belonging to different CR replicates. It is therefore not statistically possible to attribute this outcome to the effect of CR, and any conclusion would be speculative. Nevertheless, we cannot exclude the possibility that this result is related to an incipient sign of an effect that would manifest over a longer period or with greater capture frequency. Since K and GSI decreased over time in females, it is assumed that the gonads were beginning to enter a regression stage in both groups due to the lack of reproduction. Although reproduction of Astyanax species is common in culture tanks (Garuti, 2003; Baldisseroto and Gomes, 2005), in this study it was not observed in any of the experimental units, possibly due to the specific environmental conditions during the experimental period. This absence should be interpreted with caution, as it does not invalidate the results obtained but suggests that external factors, such as confinement stress and the lack of environmental triggers required for the induction of reproduction, rather than catch-and-release management, may have similarly influenced the reproductive performance of both the experimental and control groups. However, it is believed that over longer experimental periods, the occurrence of offspring could be recorded.

The information obtained serves as a reference for future studies related to the effects of CR on the reproductive aspects of fish of the order Characiformes. However, although some studies have not found evidence that CR influences fish reproduction, caution should be taken when generalizing to species with different behavior and biology, since species-specific studies are necessary for different environments, equipment used and manipulations applied (Bartholomew and Bohnsack, 2005; Marques et al., 2007; Arlinghaus et al., 2010).

In this context, scientists have already warned about negative impacts on the reproduction of black bass, Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802), related to the quality of the offspring when the spawners are captured before the spawning season (Ostrand et al., 2014); and to nest abandonment and offspring predation when the parents are subjected to CR during the parental care period (Philipp et al., 1997; Stein and Philipp, 2015; Twardek et al., 2017). On the other hand, even reporting negative effects on the nests of black bass, Micropterus spp., Trippel et al. (2017) did not identify effects on population recruitment among young descendants of CR and C.

Regarding reproductive migration, some studies have also identified impacts on the migration of salmon, Salmo salar (Linnaeus, 1758), due to CR (Mäkinen et al., 2000; Thorstad et al., 2003). However, Jensen et al. (2010), using fish tagged before the reproductive period, found no evidence that salmon interrupted reproductive migration after CR. This information demonstrates that the effects of CR can be highly dependent on the species and the conditions to which they are subjected, since different scientists, studying different species and stages of the reproductive cycle, found different results. Thus, gaps in studies to be developed in the area are evident.

This pioneering study in assessing the impacts of CR on fish reproduction in Brazil is of great importance for providing guidelines and establishing an experimental protocol that can be used in other species, such as the Cichla spp. (tucunarés), which also can reproduce naturally in captivity. It should be emphasized that CR neither accelerated gonadal regression nor compromised the body condition of mature females that failed to spawn under captivity. It is important to note that the conclusions presented here apply to groups of individuals subjected to CR, rather than only those captured and released, since the effects of CR extend to the population level (Griffin et al., 2025). These finds demonstrate that CR activity has the potential to be conducted in management programs that aim at the sustainable use of fishery resources. However, we reinforce the need for studies on the target species of sport fishing, since the results obtained by different researchers indicate species-specific effects. Finally, we recommend that CR, when performed, be in a way that reduces stress and injuries caused to the fish.

Acknowledgements

P.A.P. thanks CNPq for the continuous research productivity grants (PQ Process Number: 310532/2021-3).

Data Availability Statement

Research data is only available upon request

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*

e-mail: [e-mail]

Editor:

Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  06 Nov 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  20 Sept 2025
• Accepted
  04 Aug 2026