Investigating the necessity of water recycling and reuse of unconventional water in the context of water resources management: a case study of UzbekistanAbstract
Water resources management under the circumstances of climate change and increasing pressure on natural resources, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, has become an urgent problem. Using Uzbekistan as a case study, this paper addresses reclaiming and recycling nonconventional water as a necessity under the paradigm of water resources management. Information was collected in this study through water source sampling, interviewing farmers and local managers, and studying available documents in three provinces of Fergana, Khorezm, and Bukhara. The findings reveal the high potential of nonconventional water resources, including treated wastewater, brackish water, and agricultural drainage, with a total volume of about 1330 million cubic meters per year. Water quality analysis shows that treated urban wastewater is largely within agricultural standards, and saline groundwater requires management and caution due to high salinity and sodium. However, there have been significant social and economic limitations, including farmers' health concerns and high initial investment, in implementing these solutions. Economic comparisons demonstrate the cost-effectiveness of wastewater treatment technologies compared to brackish water desalination. The results of this study stress the need for coordinated government policies, investment in infrastructure, and extension program implementation to overcome bottlenecks and achieve sustainable water management in Uzbekistan.
Keywords:
water scarcity; water recycling; non-conventional waters; Uzbekistan; sustainable management
Resumo
A gestão de recursos hídricos em um contexto de mudanças climáticas e crescente pressão sobre os recursos naturais, especialmente em regiões áridas e semiáridas, tornou-se um problema urgente. Utilizando o Uzbequistão como estudo de caso, este artigo aborda a recuperação e a reciclagem de água não convencional como uma necessidade dentro do paradigma da gestão de recursos hídricos. As informações foram coletadas neste estudo por meio de amostragem de fontes de água, entrevistas com agricultores e gestores locais, e estudo de documentos disponíveis em três províncias: Fergana, Khorezm e Bukhara. Os resultados revelam o alto potencial de recursos hídricos não convencionais, incluindo águas residuais tratadas, água salobra e drenagem agrícola, com um volume total de cerca de 1330 milhões de metros cúbicos por ano. A análise da qualidade da água mostra que as águas residuais urbanas tratadas estão, em grande parte, dentro dos padrões agrícolas, e que a água subterrânea salina requer gestão e cautela devido à alta salinidade e ao sódio. No entanto, têm ocorrido limitações sociais e econômicas significativas, incluindo preocupações com saúde dos agricultores e um elevado investimento inicial na implementação destas soluções. As comparações econômicas demonstram a relação custo-eficácia das tecnologias de tratamento de águas residuais em comparação com a dessalinização de água salobra. Os resultados deste estudo sublinham a necessidade de políticas governamentais coordenadas, investimento em infraestruturas e implementação de programas de extensão para superar estrangulamentos e alcançar uma gestão sustentável da água no Uzbequistão.
Palavras-chave:
escassez de água; reciclagem de água; águas não convencionais; Uzbequistão; gestão sustentável
1. Introduction
In the modern age, when a growing population and climate change are putting immense pressure on natural resources, the management of water resources has become one of the largest challenges for human societies (Khare, 2025; Al-Hussainy et al., 2025). Water scarcity not only strikes agriculture and the economy, but also threatens public health, food security, and even social stability. The problem is even more urgent in arid and semi-arid regions such as Central Asia, where transboundary rivers and scant water supplies have generated complex competitions (Dalezios et al., 2018; Ualiyeva et al., 2022). Uzbekistan, as a representative nation in the region, is an example of this crisis through its extensive utilization of water in cotton and cereal cultivation. An exploration into the possibilities of recycling of water and reuse of non-conventional supplies provides a realistic solution to counter these pressures and achieve long-term sustainability (Gleick, 2010; Bekimbetov et al., 2025).
Because of its geographic location in the Amu Darya and Syr Darya river basins, Uzbekistan has historically been under water constraints, but these constraints have intensified in recent years (Lazarova et al., 2000). Reduction of glacier flow due to global warming, coupled with increasing water demand in the agricultural and urban sectors, has caused sharp shortages. Projections are that in the absence of immediate intervention, the country could face water shortfalls of billions of cubic meters. In addition, pollution of water resources and losses from traditional irrigation systems have worsened the problems. Therefore, a focus on smart management of water resources, including recycling and use of non-conventional waters like treated wastewater or brackish water, seems a necessity to balance demand and supply (Hossen et al., 2025; Narkul et al., 2025).
Nonconventional waters, normally overlooked, have great potential to compensate for water shortages. For example, municipal wastewater recycling and treatment may provide a feasible source for land irrigation without placing further demands on fresh water resources (Dalezios et al., 2018). In Uzbekistan, where more than half of the water used in agriculture is wasted, such measures may help increase productivity and reduce dependency on transboundary rivers. They are not only economically viable, but also ecologically sound, with the possibility of safeguarding fragile ecosystems (Gleick, 2010; Pujiyanti et al., 2024). They can be effectively realized, however, only with the requisite infrastructure and policymaking that will minimize health and environmental risks (Chakramurty et al., 2025; Eshqarayev et al., 2025). Uzbekistan's water resource management, based on its Soviet experience of extensive and wasteful irrigation, needs to be radically transformed. The government is now trying to control water wastage by using new technology, i.e., computerizing irrigation systems and paving canals with concrete (Lazarova et al., 2000; Priyono et al., 2024). All these policies alone are not enough and should be complemented by water recycling programs to make the system complete and sustainable. The need to carry out research in this area is suggested, not only to solve the local problems, but also to serve as a model for other similar countries (Hossen et al., 2025; Khaydarova et al., 2025).
This case study has the potential to illustrate how the application of innovative solutions to local conditions is able to turn a water crisis into an opportunity for development. Finally, this study aims to provide realistic suggestions to Uzbek policymakers through an examination of the need for water recycling and the use of non-traditional sources. The relevance of this subject is that without these measures, the water security of the nation is threatened, and this can negatively impact economic growth and human welfare. By prioritizing local information and foreign experiences, the problems and solutions can be better understood. Not only does this study highlight the importance of the issue, but it also highlights the need to render Uzbekistan more responsive to changes in the future.
The literature on water resources management has more recently emphasized the importance of productivity and sustainability, and the way that population growth and climate change are putting pressure on limited water resources (Nurfauzia et al., 2025). Many studies have looked at traditional solutions such as damming and water transfer, but increasingly focused on more innovative solutions such as demand management and resource conservation. Work in Central Asia, where transboundary rivers are key, has dealt with political and economic concerns and warned that, in the absence of regional cooperation, water scarcity can further social tensions (Hamidov et al., 2022; Pascu et al., 2016). Uzbekistan, being one of the vulnerable countries, has been cited consistently in the literature as an example of overdependence on irrigated agriculture, where inefficiencies in old systems reduce productivity. Such studies point out that management of water resources cannot be restricted to short-term supply but must focus on long-term options such as recycling to balance requirements and resources (Mirzaqobulov et al., 2024; Alizadeh et al., 2024).
Research on water recycling focuses on the economic and environmental benefits of this approach and demonstrates how treatment of wastewater can be a viable source for non-potable uses (Djumabekova et al., 2024; Mohd Yazid et al., 2023). In water-short countries such as Israel and Australia, positive experiences demonstrate that there is a reduced dependency on fresh water resources, with sophisticated technologies such as membrane filtration ensuring the quality of recycled water (Narzullaev and Bekov, 2024). The literature focuses on technical matters such as initial expenses and training requirements but overemphasizes the long-term benefits such as pollution minimization and energy conservation. In Central Asia, studies project that water recycling can reduce pressure on the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers and can assist agriculture (Kulmatov et al., 2020; Isaev et al., 2023). These reviews suggest that government policy needs to be followed by investments in infrastructure to incorporate water recycling as a national strategy to prevent any future crisis.
Non-conventional waters, such as brackish water, industrial wastewater, and harvested rainwater, have been identified in the literature as promising resources to bridge the gaps. Literature highlights that seawater or brackish water desalination, though energy-intensive, is viable for coastal or desert areas and can cater to urban needs (Awaad et al., 2020). In the developing world, the focus is on using treated wastewater for irrigation, where literature warns against health risks such as soil contamination but suggests prescriptions such as quality standards (Kumar et al., 2018). Literature underscores that the integration of these supplies into existing systems requires environmental impact studies to preserve ecosystems (Xu et al., 2024). In Uzbekistan, studies project that the potential of non-conventional waters is high, but technological shortage and public opinion hinder their full exploitation, indicating the need for further research.
Case studies in Uzbekistan generally point to post-independence from the Soviet Union problems, where inefficient irrigation systems have led to salinity and loss of soil fertility. Research is focused on recent reforms such as digitalization of irrigation and shows that such measures have increased productivity but are incomplete without recycling (Qadir et al., 2007). Comparisons with immediate neighbors such as Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan reveal policy differences where focus on renewable energy for water desalination has produced positive results. Literature warns that river flows will reduce because of climate change and Uzbekistan must embark on diversification of resources (Hafeez and Awan, 2022). The reviews suggest that local experience and international knowledge can be combined to design appropriate models for water management to avert economic crises. Finally, the literature highlights gaps such as a lack of empirical research on implementing water recycling at the local level and emphasizes the need for applied research. Research has also focused on theoretical aspects but less so on societal and cultural barriers such as public acceptance of recycled water (Elmahdi, 2024). In Uzbekistan, these gaps are the most apparent, where holistic data on the quality of nonconventional water are lacking. The literature suggests that future research needs to focus on economic and environmental assessments to enable policymakers to make informed decisions (Almuktar et al., 2018). This review contends that by filling these gaps, it is achievable to have sustainable water resource management and Uzbekistan can become a model for the region.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study design and geographical coverage
The research is conducted as an Uzbekistan field and analytical study, with a geographical focus on the most significant agricultural regions in the Amu Darya and Syr Darya river basins. Fergana, Khorezm, and Bukhara provinces were selected as research areas due to intensive use of irrigation and water shortages. Quantitative and qualitative approaches will be used in order to collect the data and get the full picture of the availability of water resources and the possibilities of recycling. The study seeks to identify the feasibility of using non-conventional waters, i.e., treated wastewater and brackish water. To obtain accuracy, the hydrological data, water quality, and consumption patterns are compared for five years. This allows comparison of the current state with proposed recycling scenarios.
2.2. Data collection methods
The required data will be collected by sampling water sources, interviewing local farmers and managers, and reviewing available documents. Sampling of water is done from municipal wastewater treatment plants in the cities of Tashkent and Samarkand, as well as saline groundwater supplies in the Khorezm region. Water quality is assessed on salinity, pH, organic content, and microbial contaminants using standard laboratory equipment. Qualitative evidence of social acceptance and cultural barriers to the use of recycled water comes from in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 50 farmers and 20 local authorities within the research areas. Secondary data, such as hydrological information and water use, are obtained from state and local authorities to provide a detailed account of the current situation.
2.3. Analysis methods
These data are subjected to statistical and modeling techniques in order to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of water recycling. Statistical software such as SPSS is used in water quality analysis to test for changes in quality parameters over time. Simplified hydrological models are developed to simulate the different scenarios of unconventional water use in agriculture. These models predict the impact of recycling in reducing the stress on fresh water resources. Cost-benefit analysis is also carried out to economically evaluate treatment and recycling technologies to determine their feasibility at the local level. Finally, interview data is qualitatively assessed using inductive content analysis to effectively establish social and cultural barriers.
3. Results
The detailed analysis of the data collected in the Fergana, Khorezm, and Bukhara regions yielded insightful information on the current state of water resources and the immense potential for establishing a position for recycled and non-conventional water in the water management of Uzbekistan. The results are organized along the following thematic areas: water quality assessment, quantitative potential, socio-economic perceptions, and scenario modeling.
The analysis of treated municipal wastewater from the two major cities indicates a generally consistent quality profile over the five-year monitoring period. As shown in Table 1, the effluent quality from both plants is largely within the FAO and WHO recommended limits for agricultural irrigation. Notably, the Electrical Conductivity (EC) values, while acceptable for salt-tolerant crops, indicate a moderate salinity level that necessitates careful management to prevent secondary soil salinization. The nutrient content (Nitrogen and Phosphorus) is significant, presenting a valuable opportunity for reducing synthetic fertilizer application in agriculture, thereby offering an economic benefit alongside water savings.
Physicochemical Quality Parameters of Municipal Wastewater Effluent from Tashkent and Samarkand Treatment Plants (2018-2022 Average).
The assessment of brackish groundwater in Khorezm, a region severely affected by soil salinization, reveals water with high to very high salinity hazards (Table 2). The Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) values are critically high, indicating a severe risk of sodium-induced soil dispersion and structure degradation if used without appropriate amendment or highly advanced treatment. The elevated Boron levels at Sites 2 and 3 exceed the threshold for most crops, rendering this water unsuitable for direct irrigation. These findings underscore that the use of such resources is not feasible without prior desalination or for exclusive use in blending with higher-quality water to mitigate negative agronomic impacts.
A quantification of available unconventional water resources highlights a substantial untapped potential. As summarized in Table 3, the three study regions collectively generate an estimated 1,330 million cubic meters (MCM) per year from combined sources. Agricultural drainage water constitutes the largest share (51%), followed by treated wastewater (26%) and brackish groundwater (23%). This volume represents a strategically important alternative water source that could significantly offset the dependency on fresh surface water from the transboundary Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, directly addressing the core issue of water scarcity.
The socio-cultural analysis, derived from farmer interviews, reveals significant barriers to adoption rooted in perception and trust. Table 4 demonstrates that while there is conditional acceptance (40% agree/strongly agree if subsidized), deep-seated concerns persist. A overwhelming majority (80%) express concern about potential health risks, and 70% worry about the impact on crop quality and marketability. The very low level of trust in the treated water's quality (only 20% trust it) indicates that technological solutions alone are insufficient. A successful implementation strategy must, therefore, include robust public awareness campaigns, demonstrable pilot projects, and possibly economic incentives to overcome these prevalent apprehensions.
The economic feasibility assessment, presented in Table 5, indicates that tertiary treatment of wastewater for reuse is the most economically viable option among the considered technologies. The payback period of 8-12 years is attractive for public investment, especially when considering the added benefit of nutrient value. Desalination of brackish water via Reverse Osmosis, while technically feasible, involves higher capital and operational energy costs, resulting in a less favorable financial return. This analysis suggests that policy should prioritize investment in expanding and upgrading wastewater treatment infrastructure as a first step, while brackish water desalination could be targeted for specific high-value agricultural or municipal applications.
The hydrological modeling of an integrated recycling scenario demonstrates a tangible positive impact on water conservation. As modeled in Table 6, the systematic incorporation of treated wastewater and drainage water could reduce annual freshwater withdrawals from the river systems by nearly 980 MCM, or approximately 10%. This reduction is not merely volumetric; it represents a critical buffer against seasonal water shortages and inter-annual climate variability, enhancing the resilience of the agricultural sector and contributing to greater water security at the regional level.
The agronomic simulation results presented in Table 7 reveal that the impact of using blended water (50% freshwater, 50% treated effluent) is crop-specific. For major crops like cotton, wheat, and alfalfa, the nutrient value in the recycled water appears to offset the mild salinity, resulting in a marginal yield increase. However, for more sensitive crops like tomatoes, a slight yield decrease was simulated, attributed primarily to the elevated salinity levels. This underscores the necessity for a strategic approach where water quality is matched to crop tolerance, ensuring that water recycling contributes to, rather than detracts from, agricultural productivity.
The qualitative analysis of interviews with water management officials provided crucial context for implementation. As synthesized in Table 8, the perceived challenges are predominantly infrastructural and financial. Officials unanimously identified strong government policy and international partnerships as the most critical enablers for success. This alignment between the identified challenges (investment, infrastructure) and the proposed solutions (policy, funding) provides a clear roadmap for policymakers, emphasizing that the pathway to adoption requires addressing financial and institutional barriers first and foremost.
Figure 1 shows the quantitative distribution of potential unconventional water resources across the three study regions. Khorezm region shows the highest potential, primarily due to its significant volume of agricultural drainage water. This data is pivotal for prioritizing regional investment and infrastructure development, suggesting that initial large-scale projects could be most impactful in the Khorezm region.
Figure 2 provides a simplified comparative overview of the total estimated cost (capital + operational) for the three primary treatment technologies evaluated. The clear cost gradient highlights the economic advantage of tertiary treatment for wastewater recycling over desalination technologies. This chart effectively communicates the financial rationale behind a phased investment strategy, starting with wastewater reuse.
Figure 3 shows the complex socio-perceptual data into a clear visualization of how economic incentives could drastically influence the adoption rate of water recycling practices among farmers. The dramatic increase in acceptance from 15% to 65% with a subsidy model provides strong evidence for policymakers to consider financial incentive programs as a core component of the promotion strategy.
4. Discussion
The results of this study demonstrate that there is high potential for recycling and use of unconventional sources of water in the water resource management of Uzbekistan but also some difficulties in doing so. The quality of wastewater treated in the cities of Tashkent and Samarkand meets international standards for use in irrigation in agriculture and can be used as a sustainable source. This is especially urgent in water-deficient agricultural oases of Fergana and Bukhara. Saline groundwater in Khorezm, however, is not appropriate for most of the agricultural crops without advanced treatment due to its high salinity and excessive sodium and boron content. Therefore, these findings indicate that the effectiveness of these solutions is dependent on meticulous identification of nonconventional sources and their alignment with crop and soil type. Furthermore, the extensive availability of non-conventional waters, especially agricultural drainage waters, provides opportunity for reducing the dependency on transboundary rivers but highlights the need for investment in treatment plants.
Socially, cultural resistance and health concerns among farmers are the overriding challenges to recycled water use. More than 80% of farmers were worried about health risks and the impact on the quality of produce, highlighting the need for training programs and demonstration projects. The results of interviews with local managers also identify the lack of modern infrastructure and prohibitive upfront costs as key barriers. These concerns are parallel to the experience of other countries, such as Israel, which have managed to promote adoption through public education and policy. Therefore, in order to be effective in Uzbekistan, incentive policies such as government subsidies need to be accompanied by public awareness creation. The study shows that without the presence of public trust, even advanced technologies are not able to be adopted to their fullest.
Economically, the cost-benefit analysis also showed that recycling water via the treatment of wastewater using advanced methods is the most economical means of recycling water, having an acceptable payback period of between 8 and 12 years. Brackish water desalination, however, is expensive and more suitable for special uses. These findings are consistent with international research showing that recycling of wastewater can be both environmentally and economically viable in developing countries. Yet in Uzbekistan, financial constraints and technical deficits call for international support and private sector engagement. Hydrological modeling also showed that non-conventional water use would reduce fresh water withdrawals by some 10 percent, which is of strategic importance, especially during dry seasons and in the context of climate change.
Crop simulation outcomes indicate a positive impact of recycled water on cotton and alfalfa crop yields due to the high nutrient content of these waters. For tomato crops, which are sensitive to salinity, yield reductions were observed, pointing to the need for careful water quality management. These results are in line with the existing literature emphasizing that matching recycled water to crop type can increase agricultural productivity. Overall, this study suggests that water recycling can be one element in an integrated water resources management approach in Uzbekistan, but its success depends on the intertwinement of technology, policy, and social acceptability. A comparison of these findings with other neighboring nations such as Kazakhstan helps to highlight the importance of drawing from regional experiences to develop local models.
Finally, this study recognizes gaps in water management in Uzbekistan and demands further study of cost-effective technology and social acceptance. The lack of credible local data on the quality of unconventional water and its long-term cumulative impacts on crops and soil indicates the need for complementary research. Also, to overcome cultural resistance, small-scale pilot projects need to be launched with a view to achieving farmers' trust. This discussion shows that water recycling and use of non-conventional supplies is not just a necessity but also an opportunity to transform water challenges into sustainable development in Uzbekistan.
5. Conclusions
This study confirmed that water recycling and use of non-conventional supplies has great potential in reducing pressure on fresh water resources in Uzbekistan. The annual volume of about 1.33 billion cubic meters of non-conventional water, mainly from agricultural drainage and treated waste water, can potentially reduce water withdrawal from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers by up to 10%. This is especially important in the Fergana, Khorezm and Bukhara provinces that are facing water shortage. The appropriate quality of wastewater for irrigation and its nutrient content can increase agricultural production, but saline waters require high-level treatment, which is costly. These findings require investment in treatment plants and the careful selection of non-conventional sources.
Socio-economically, cultural resistance and uncertainty regarding the quality of recycled water are the main challenges. More than 70% of the farmers were concerned about the impact of such water on crops and health. This indicates the need for awareness campaigns and government subsidies to boost adoption. Economic viability proved that wastewater treatment is more cost-effective than desalination and has the potential to provide a return on investment within a reasonable time frame. Modeling also showed that the use of recycled water has the potential to increase the yield of some crops but, for crops sensitive to salinity, would require careful control. These results emphasize the necessity for technologies to be tailored to local conditions.
In sum, the study suggests that it is possible for Uzbekistan to move toward sustainable management of water resources through investment in treatment facilities, pilot demonstrations, and enabling policy support. International cooperation and private sector participation are also required to mobilize finance and transfer technology. This report is a baseline for future policy development and illustrates that water recycling is not simply a reaction to water scarcity, but also an opportunity to enhance water security and economic development in Uzbekistan.
Data Availability Statement
Data will be available upon the request.
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Edited by
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Editor:
Takako Matsumura Tundisi
