Ethnobotanical knowledge and utilization of Goniothalamus macrophyllus among local communities in the lowland forests of Kuningan, West Java

Conhecimento etnobotânico e utilização de Goniothalamus macrophyllus entre comunidades locais nas florestas de terras baixas de Kuningan, Java Ocidental

Abstract

Goniothalamus macrophyllus is a tropical forest species known for its bioactive compounds, particularly anticancer activity. Despite this, information regarding its traditional uses and community conservation perspectives remains scarce. This study explores the ethnobotanical knowledge of local communities related to G. macrophyllus, emphasizing traditional knowledge, utilization, and conservation views. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with residents living near lowland forests, and data were analyzed descriptively. Results reveal that only a limited number of respondents recognized G. macrophyllus, with knowledge transmitted orally and through practical experience. The species was reported to occur in forests, yet most respondents were unaware of its population status or regeneration capacity. Traditional utilization was minimal, with the most notable practice being the use of stems as snake repellents—newly recorded ethnobotanical knowledge, as the plant has previously been documented mainly for its anticancer properties. From a conservation perspective, respondents acknowledged the cultural, medicinal, and economic importance of the species. However, awareness of potential population decline due to overexploitation was lacking. This study underscores the gap between local knowledge and scientific understanding, highlighting the urgent need for documentation, education, and community-based conservation strategies to ensure the sustainable use of G. macrophyllus.

Keywords:
Goniothalamus macrophyllus; Tropical forest; Traditional knowledge; Ethnobotany; Medicinal plant utilization; Community-based conservation

Resumo

Goniothalamus macrophyllus é uma espécie de floresta tropical conhecida por seus compostos bioativos, particularmente pela atividade anticancerígena. Apesar disso, as informações sobre seus usos tradicionais e as percepções comunitárias de conservação ainda são escassas. Este estudo explora o conhecimento etnobotânico das comunidades locais relacionado a G. macrophyllus, com ênfase no saber tradicional, na utilização e nas visões sobre conservação. Foram realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas com moradores que vivem próximos a florestas de terras baixas, e os dados foram analisados de forma descritiva. Os resultados revelam que apenas um número limitado de entrevistados reconhecia G. macrophyllus, sendo o conhecimento transmitido oralmente e por meio da experiência prática. A espécie foi relatada como habitante das florestas, embora a maioria dos entrevistados desconhecesse seu estado populacional ou capacidade de regeneração. A utilização tradicional mostrou-se mínima, destacando-se o uso do caule como repelente de cobras – um conhecimento etnobotânico recém-registrado, já que a planta tem sido principalmente documentada por suas propriedades anticancerígenas. Do ponto de vista da conservação, os entrevistados reconheceram a importância cultural, medicinal e econômica da espécie. No entanto, faltava consciência sobre o possível declínio populacional decorrente da superexploração. Este estudo evidencia a lacuna entre o conhecimento local e o entendimento científico, ressaltando a necessidade urgente de documentação, educação e estratégias de conservação comunitária para garantir o uso sustentável de G. macrophyllus.

Palavras-chave:
Goniothalamus macrophyllus; floresta tropical; conhecimento tradicional; etnobotânica; utilização de plantas medicinais; conservação comunitária

1. Introduction

The lowland forest ecosystems of Indonesia harbor remarkable biodiversity, including numerous plant species with medicinal properties. In Kuningan Regency, West Java, local communities have long relied on traditional knowledge passed down through generations to treat various ailments using medicinal plants (Barkaoui et al., 2017; Asafo-Agyei et al., 2019; Zougagh et al., 2019). This ethnobotanical knowledge not only reflects cultural identity but also serves as an alternative health strategy that complements formal medical systems. However, social and environmental dynamics such as modernization, changing lifestyles, and ecological pressures pose potential challenges to the perception and practice of medicinal plant use among local communities (Hakim et al., 2022; Silva et al., 2023; Greff et al., 2023).

One species of particular interest is Goniothalamus macrophyllus (Blume) Hook.f. & Thomson (G. macrophyllus), a member of the Annonaceae family known to contain bioactive compounds with potential anticancer properties. Despite its pharmacological significance, understanding of how local communities perceive and practice the use of this species in traditional medicine remains limited. Exploring such perceptions and practices is crucial for documenting traditional knowledge, assessing its resilience in the face of modernization, and identifying socio-cultural and ecological factors that influence its continuity (Arjona-García et al., 2021; Bispo et al., 2021; López-Patiño et al., 2022). This study seeks to address two main questions: (i) how do communities living around the lowland forests of Kuningan Regency perceive G. macrophyllus as a medicinal plant? and (ii) to what extent is the tradition of using G. macrophyllus maintained or transformed in the context of social and environmental changes? Addressing these questions is expected to provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of cultural knowledge transmission as well as the interactions between traditional medicine and the forces of modernization.

The methods employed in this study combine a qualitative ethnobotanical approach through in-depth interviews, participant observation, and descriptive analysis to explore the social, cultural, and ecological dimensions of medicinal plant use. This approach is further enriched by an interdisciplinary perspective, encompassing environmental science, anthropology, and traditional medicine studies, to provide a holistic understanding of human–plant relationships. Thus, the study not only contributes to the documentation of ethnomedical knowledge but also supports biodiversity conservation efforts by emphasizing the role of local communities in the sustainable management of forest resources (Licitra 2012; Pieroni et al., 2014; Perera et al., 2024).

Previous studies have highlighted the importance of traditional medical systems across different parts of the world, emphasizing the cultural, ecological, and health values of medicinal plants (Camp et al., 2012; Latief et al., 2019; Kaplan. 2020; Ck and Shamanna. 2022; Lemhadri et al., 2023; Niyaz et al., 2023; Ugwah. 2023). Several of these studies have also proposed the integration of traditional knowledge into modern healthcare systems to promote sustainable and culturally sensitive public health strategies (McDermott. 2017; Uwayezu et al., 2022; Aguessy. 2023). Nevertheless, research specifically addressing G. macrophyllus within the cultural context of Indonesian communities remains highly limited. By focusing on this species and its utilization by communities living around the lowland forests of Kuningan Regency, this study provides a significant contribution to the fields of ethnobotany, medical anthropology, and environmental conservation. Thus, this study highlights the interconnectedness between local knowledge, medicinal plant use practices, and cultural resilience, while also providing insights for strategies to preserve both traditional knowledge and biodiversity. The findings are expected to enrich understanding of the dynamics of traditional healing practices in lowland forest communities and serve as a foundation for integrating traditional knowledge into biodiversity conservation and public health initiatives.

2. Materials and Metods

This study was conducted from June to September 2025 in Cimara Village, Cibeureum District, Kuningan Regency, West Java, Indonesia, which is directly adjacent to the Gunung Tilu forest area, and in Legokherang Village, Cilebak District, Kuningan Regency, West Java, Indonesia, which borders the Gunung Subang forest area. Both forest areas are classified as lowland forests. The objective of this study was to explore community perceptions and practices regarding the use of Goniothalamus macrophyllus as a medicinal plant in communities surrounding lowland forest areas. The study employed an ethnobotanical approach, integrating anthropological, botanical, and ecological perspectives to understand the relationships between humans and plants. This research applied a qualitative design with a phenomenological approach to capture and interpret community experiences and perceptions related to medicinal plants. The research procedures were conducted as follows:

2.1. Research Preparation

The preparation phase began with the identification of the study area, involving the selection of sites surrounding lowland forest areas in Kuningan Regency known for their historical use of medicinal plants by local communities. This selection was essential to ensure the relevance of the data to the research objectives, particularly in exploring ethnobotanical knowledge. Subsequently, a conceptual framework was developed to map the research variables and their interrelationships. This framework served as a guideline for both data collection and analysis, ensuring a systematic research process aligned with the study objectives.

2.2. Data Collection

Data were collected using several qualitative methods. First, in-depth interviews were conducted with local community members possessing knowledge of medicinal plants, particularly G. macrophyllus. These interviews explored perceptions, uses, and experiences related to the plant. Respondents included residents of Cimara and Legokherang Villages who are known to utilize G. macrophyllus for medicinal purposes. In addition, participatory observation was carried out to understand how medicinal plants are used in daily community life, providing contextual insights into their practical applications. Furthermore, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted as structured group discussions involving community members with relevant experiences or perspectives on G. macrophyllus, allowing for a more in-depth and comprehensive exploration of the topic.

2.3. Data Analysis

Data analysis was conducted in several stages. First, all interview recordings and observational notes were fully transcribed to ensure data accuracy. Next, a coding process was performed to categorize the data into emerging themes and patterns, such as community perceptions, forms of utilization, and views on the conservation of G. macrophyllus. The analysis was then continued using a phenomenological approach aimed at understanding respondents’ lived experiences and perceptions in depth. This approach enabled the researchers to capture the subjective meanings embedded in traditional practices and local knowledge related to medicinal plants. Consequently, the analysis not only provides descriptive findings but also reveals the cultural and social dimensions of community interactions with biological resources.

3. Results

3.1. Characteristics of respondents

Based on the collected data, there are general similarities in the characteristics of respondents from both Cimara and Legokherang villages. The distribution of respondents by age is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Respondents by Age Group.

Based on Figure 1, the total number of respondents was 80 individuals. In terms of age distribution, the majority were in the 36–50years group (42 respondents), followed by the 26–35years group (22 respondents), and those over 50 years old (16 respondents). These findings indicate that most respondents fall within the middle productive age category, although a proportion of elderly respondents was also represented. Distribution of respondents by gender is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2
Respondents by Gender.

Based on Figure 2, the respondents were predominantly male (70 individuals), while female respondents accounted for only 10 individuals. This indicates that male participation was more dominant in the study, which aligns with the fact that the majority of respondents work as farmers a livelihood generally associated with field-based activities. Distribution of respondents based on main occupation is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3
Respondents by Primary Occupation.

Based on Figure 3, in terms of primary occupation, the majority of respondents were farmers (70 individuals), while the remainder were village officials (8 individuals), traders (1 individual), and teachers (1 individual). This distribution illustrates that the livelihoods of the communities in both villages remain highly dependent on the agricultural sector. The distribution of respondents based on their last education is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4
Respondents by Educational Background

Based on Figure 4, the educational background of respondents showed considerable variation. Respondents with a senior high school education dominated the sample (49 individuals), followed by junior high school graduates (17 individuals), elementary school graduates (7 individuals), and university graduates (7 individuals). This distribution demonstrates that although most respondents had attained secondary education (senior high school), there were also individuals with only primary education as well as those who had pursued higher education. Overall, the characteristics of respondents from Cimara and Legokherang villages reveal a general pattern: the communities are predominantly composed of middle-productive-age males, primarily working as farmers, with a relatively adequate educational level most having completed senior high school.

3.2. Traditional knowledge of G. macrophyllus

Traditional knowledge of the community about Goniothalamus macrophyllus can be seen in Figure 5.

Figure 5
Respondents’ Knowledge of G. macrophyllus.

Based on Figure 5, only 10 respondents reported having knowledge of G. macrophyllus. This knowledge was primarily acquired through intergenerational transmission from parents, indicating the presence of traditional knowledge inheritance within the community. The plant is locally known by the names “tendani” and “kilemo,” reflecting the diversity of local terminologies used to refer to the same species. Interestingly, the majority of respondents familiar with tendani stated that their experience with the plant had been limited to less than 10 years. This suggests that knowledge of the species is beginning to face limitations in intergenerational transmission and is not widely distributed among community members. Such a condition may also indicate the potential erosion of local knowledge if efforts toward documentation and revitalization are not undertaken.

The transmission of traditional knowledge occurs through two main pathways: oral narratives from previous generations (8 respondents) and direct practical experience in the field (2 respondents). This pattern illustrates the importance of social interaction and hands-on experience as primary means of transferring local knowledge. Furthermore, respondents identified the groups perceived to have the greatest understanding of this plant: farmers (10 respondents), elders (1 respondent), and researchers (2 respondents). This finding indicates that knowledge of G. macrophyllus is not only preserved among traditional groups such as farmers or elders but has also begun to attract attention from academics and researchers. Such dynamics suggest opportunities to integrate local knowledge with scientific approaches.

With regard to the sustainability of knowledge, most respondents stated that knowledge of this plant is no longer consistently passed on to younger generations. Out of 80 respondents, only 1 person reported that the knowledge is still being transmitted, 5 respondents stated that it is not being transmitted, and the majority (73 respondents) admitted that they were uncertain about whether the knowledge is being inherited. These findings indicate a tendency toward the erosion of traditional knowledge, in which the limited intergenerational transmission poses a threat to the preservation of knowledge regarding the use of G. macrophyllus. Thus, the study emphasizes that while traditional knowledge of G. macrophyllus remains present, it exists in a vulnerable state and is at risk of extinction. Documentation, revitalization, and the strengthening of knowledge transmission mechanisms to younger generations are therefore crucial to ensuring the continuity of this ethnobotanical heritage in the future.

3.3. Habitat and availability of G. macrophyllus

Community perceptions regarding the natural habitat of G. macrophyllus are relatively clear. A total of 74 respondents stated that this plant grows in forested areas, while 6 respondents admitted they did not know its specific habitat. This finding confirms that the community continues to recognize the forest as the primary ecosystem for the species, although a small proportion of respondents demonstrated limited information. With respect to its availability, perceptions among respondents varied. Seven individuals reported that G. macrophyllus is still relatively easy to find, whereas 12 respondents considered it increasingly rare. The majority, however, (61 respondents) stated that they did not know, suggesting limited direct interaction with the species in its natural environment. This pattern indicates a shift in community access to, or connection with, forest resources, resulting in increasingly restricted knowledge about the species’ presence.

In relation to population dynamics, the survey revealed that most respondents were uncertain about the population status of G. macrophyllus. Only one respondent believed that its population was declining, another stated otherwise, while 78 respondents admitted they did not know. This finding highlights the community’s limited capacity to observe changes in the species’ population within its natural habitat. Furthermore, when asked about the possible causes of population decline, only one respondent associated it with insufficient regeneration, while the remaining 79 respondents reported having no knowledge. This reflects a lack of ecological understanding among community members regarding the factors influencing the sustainability of G. macrophyllus.

3.4. Utilization of G. macrophyllus

The utilization of G. macrophyllus by communities living around the lowland forest area is presented in Figure 6.

Figure 6
Utilization of G. macrophyllus.

Based on Figure 6, community knowledge regarding the utilization of G. macrophyllus remains very limited. Out of 80 respondents, only 11 reported that this plant has a practical function in daily life, particularly as a snake repellent. Most of these respondents, who are farmers, utilize the stem of the plant as a walking stick during activities in the fields or forests. Their belief is based on the assumption that the distinctive aroma released by the stem of G. macrophyllus is disliked by snakes, thereby preventing them from approaching. Typically, the sticks are prepared with a length of 1–1.5 meters and a diameter of 1–2 cm, with the bark peeled off at the tip for about 2–5 cm. To date, G. macrophyllus has not been traded in either local or regional markets. This is likely due to the limited community knowledge regarding its economic value and pharmacological properties. An example of the walking stick made from the stem of G. macrophyllus is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7
Walking stick made from the stem of G. macrophyllus.

Based on Figure 7, the fact that local communities primarily recognize this species for its ecological and practical functions in the field highlights a dimension of traditional knowledge that has remained largely undocumented in the scientific literature. This underscores the importance of ethnobotanical research as a bridge between local knowledge and modern scientific inquiry. Documenting this novel utilization not only enriches the body of traditional knowledge but also opens opportunities for further investigation into the chemical mechanisms underlying the community’s belief that the aroma of G. macrophyllus stems repels snakes. The gap between traditional practice and pharmacological potential highlights the need for additional research to better understand the aromatic chemical mechanisms believed to function as a snake deterrent.

3.5. Community perceptions of G. macrophyllus conservation

Community perceptions of the conservation of G. macrophyllus in the lowland forest areas are illustrated in Figure 8 and Figure 9.

Figure 8
Community Perceptions of the Conservation of G. macrophyllus.

Figure 9
Community Reasons for the Importance of Conserving G. macrophyllus.

Based on Figure 8, so far, there are no prohibitions or taboos associated with the utilization of G. macrophyllus within the community. This indicates that its use remains unrestricted, without customary regulations or social norms governing access or practices. Most respondents expressed the view that G. macrophyllus is important to conserve, although their understanding of its medicinal properties remains limited; for many, the plant is primarily recognized only for its practical function as a snake-repellent stick. Nevertheless, the majority of respondents also indicated that they were unaware of any specific conservation efforts aimed at safeguarding the sustainability of this species.

Based on Figure 9, although information on conservation is limited, local communities generally recognize the importance of preserving G. macrophyllus. The most frequently cited reasons include its status as ancestral heritage, its potential as an economic resource, and its perceived medicinal benefits. This awareness reflects the cultural and economic values attached to the species, even though ecological knowledge regarding the impacts of its use remains limited.

4. Discussion

Although G. macrophyllus is still recognized by a small segment of the community through familial transmission, the scope of knowledge remains relatively narrow and unevenly distributed among respondents. This finding provides important insights for ethnobotanical research, particularly in the context of preserving traditional knowledge and promoting the sustainable use of local medicinal plants. Recognizing the importance of traditional health systems, their empowerment has been deemed crucial for the realization of several Millennium Development Goals (Ahmed et al., 2009).

The oral transmission process is a distinctive feature of traditional knowledge systems, in which knowledge is passed down across generations without written documentation (Dewi and Istiadi. 2016). Medicinal plants are employed in traditional healing practices because they are relatively inexpensive, have been passed down through generations, and are widely consumed (Widya et al., 2015). Interestingly, respondents identified the groups perceived to have the most understanding of this plant as farmers (10 individuals), elders (1 individual), and researchers (2 individuals). However, most respondents admitted that this knowledge is not being transmitted, or they were unaware of the transmission process. This aligns with findings from other ethnobotanical studies that demonstrate a tendency toward local knowledge erosion due to declining interest among younger generations and the weakening of traditional practices (Utami et al., 2019; Kurniati et al., 2022; Irwan et al., 2024; Adiputra et al., 2025). Without timely documentation, knowledge of G. macrophyllus is at risk of disappearing, as has occurred with many medicinal plant species in Southeast Asia (Haba et al., 2022).

Recent ethnobotanical studies demonstrate that traditional medicinal plant knowledge is strongly influenced by socio-cultural transitions, including urbanization and changing livelihoods. Open-access research shows that urbanization can reduce recognition and use of wild medicinal species due to decreased interaction with natural environments and shifting health practices (Arjona-García et al., 2021). These findings support the observation that knowledge of G. macrophyllus remains limited and unevenly distributed among respondents.

Overall, the data indicate that although the species is still recognized as part of the forest ecosystem, community knowledge concerning its scarcity status, population dynamics, and potential drivers of decline remains very limited. This underscores the urgent need for further scientific assessment of the species’ conservation status, alongside community education efforts to strengthen local engagement in knowledge preservation and forest ecosystem sustainability. This finding aligns with previous botanical records indicating that G. macrophyllus generally inhabits lowland tropical forests (Adhya et al., 2020; Adhya et al., 2022). The community’s uncertainty about population status reflects restricted direct interaction with forest environments, a pattern also reported in other ethnobotanical studies (Kristin et al., 2018). Such limited ecological observation, particularly concerning natural regeneration, represents a critical gap, as regeneration processes are known to play a fundamental role in sustaining forest plant populations (Lahur et al., 2023). Most respondents were also unaware that G. macrophyllus is one of the medicinal plants widely reported to have significant pharmacological potential, particularly in cancer treatment. This condition is similar to that of many other local plant species that are used only in a limited manner by rural communities and have not yet been identified for their commercial value (Hidayat et al., 2021; Hasyim et al., 2025). Recent comprehensive reviews confirm that Goniothalamus macrophyllus contains various bioactive compounds such as styryl-lactones, flavonoids, and acetogenins associated with anticancer, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities. These pharmacological findings highlight the contrast between extensive scientific recognition of its bioactivity and the limited local utilization documented in this study (Rollando et al., 2025).

The utilization of G. macrophyllus stems as a snake repellent can be categorized as new knowledge within the ethnobotanical context. This finding is noteworthy since, in the scientific literature, G. macrophyllus is predominantly recognized as a medicinal plant containing bioactive compounds with anticancer, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic potential (Bamogo et al., 2023; Rollando et al., 2025). Previous studies have emphasized the use of plants in snakebite management. The Polygalaceae family has been reported as the most frequently employed by traditional healers in the Southwest and Hauts-Bassins regions (Mogha et al., 2022). Meanwhile, Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae represent the families with the highest number of anti-venomous species, with trees and shrubs being the most preferred growth forms, and roots being the most commonly used plant parts for herbal snakebite remedies (Noor Rain et al., 2007). The cultural and economic significance attributed to G. macrophyllus highlights opportunities to develop community-based conservation initiatives (Rahmawaty et al., 2022; Ridwan et al., 2022). Conservation efforts for medicinal plants in Indonesian forests constitute a vital step in ensuring their sustainable utilization for future generations (Lahur et al., 2023). Ethnobotanical reports of unconventional plant uses often represent valuable starting points for scientific investigation. Secondary metabolites responsible for aroma or defensive properties may explain community perceptions regarding deterrent effects, as plant-derived volatile compounds are widely recognized for ecological interactions such as defense against herbivores or pathogens (Rodrigues et al., 2020).

The majority of respondents reported being unaware that continuous use of the plant could potentially reduce its natural populations. This reflects a knowledge gap between understanding its benefits and recognizing its ecological implications. Such limitations may pose a risk factor that accelerates the decline of G. macrophyllus populations if utilization is not accompanied by adequate conservation strategies. This conservation knowledge gap has been identified in previous studies as one of the major drivers of medicinal plant biodiversity loss (Siahaan et al., 2022). Furthermore, most respondents expressed a desire for educational initiatives to improve their understanding of the benefits, potential, and importance of conserving G. macrophyllus. This indicates that local communities are open and willing to embrace new knowledge, suggesting that community-based education programs could serve as an effective strategy to strengthen conservation awareness while promoting sustainable use. This finding aligns with earlier studies showing that community-based education enhances ecological awareness and reinforces traditional conservation practices (Nugroho et al., 2021; Prayoga et al., 2022; Astutik et al., 2025). Integrating ethnobotanical knowledge with participatory conservation strategies has been widely recommended as an effective approach to sustain medicinal plant biodiversity. Community engagement combined with scientific validation can strengthen ecological awareness and foster long-term stewardship of forest resources (Aslam et al., 2016). Overall, the results highlight that although G. macrophyllus is recognized as valuable by local communities, its sustainability faces serious challenges due to limited conservation knowledge. An integrative approach that combines traditional knowledge, cultural values, and modern science is therefore essential to ensure the long-term survival and sustainable utilization of this species.

The findings of this study reveal that community knowledge of G. macrophyllus remains limited, particularly concerning its utilization, population status, and conservation efforts. This condition underscores the urgent need for conservation strategies that integrate local knowledge with scientific approaches. Community education is essential, as most respondents were unaware that overexploitation could threaten the species’ long-term sustainability in the wild. Conservation efforts should therefore combine in situ approaches, such as protecting its natural lowland forest habitats, with ex situ measures, including germplasm gardens and nurseries to support regeneration. Furthermore, the discovery of its use as a snake repellent beyond its scientifically recognized anticancer properties offers new opportunities for further research and sustainable application. Thus, the conservation of G. macrophyllus requires a holistic approach that combines scientific documentation, traditional wisdom, and active community participation to ensure both its preservation and continued benefits in the future.

5. Conclusion

This study demonstrates that traditional knowledge of G. macrophyllus within local communities remains very limited and is held only by a small proportion of respondents. Such knowledge is transmitted orally or through direct practice, yet its mechanisms of inheritance are weakening, creating a risk of intergenerational erosion. The species is recognized as occurring in forest habitats, although community understanding of its availability and population dynamics is highly restricted. Most respondents were unaware of its conservation status or the ecological factors influencing its regeneration. Current utilization remains simple, particularly as a snake repellent through the use of stems believed to emit an aroma disliked by snakes. This finding represents a novel ethnobotanical record, as G. macrophyllus has been predominantly described in scientific literature for its anticancer and other bioactive properties. However, this local use has not yet developed into tangible economic value. From a conservation perspective, communities expressed that G. macrophyllus is important to preserve due to its cultural, economic, and medicinal significance. Nevertheless, the majority did not recognize that unsustainable harvesting could lead to population decline in its natural habitats. This lack of conservation awareness underscores the need for community-based education to strengthen ecological understanding. Overall, the findings highlight a gap between traditional knowledge, local utilization, and the scientific potential of G. macrophyllus. Documentation and revitalization of traditional knowledge, together with its integration into modern research, are urgently needed to prevent the loss of local wisdom while supporting sustainable use and conservation of this species.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Directorate of Research and Community Service of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia for this Research Grant, and the Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Kuningan University for its assistance and facilitation.

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials.

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Edited by

• Editor:
  Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  20 Apr 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  27 Nov 2025
• Accepted
  20 Feb 2026