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Original Article • Braz. J. Biol. 86 • 2026 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.303018 linkcopy

Open-access Exploration of natural dyes from local plants in west Sumatera for the development of sustainable environmentally based ecoprint

Exploração de corantes naturais de plantas locais do oeste de Sumatra para o desenvolvimento de ecoprint sustentável e ambientalmente baseado

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

Sustainability issues and environmental impacts of synthetic dyes have encouraged increased exploration of environmentally friendly natural dye sources. This study aims to identify the potential of local plants from the highlands of West Sumatra as a source of natural dyes, and to analyze the effect of mordant types on color variation and fastness in cotton fabrics. Ten local plant species were used as sources of natural pigments from leaves and bark. Three types of mordants—alum (KAl(SO4)2•12H2O), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and tunjung (FeSO4•7H2O)—were applied to produce color variations. Fastness tests were conducted using three types of washing agents (Lerak Extract, Soklin Liquid, and Soklin Bleach) and analyzed quantitatively with a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 625 nm. The results showed that the use of mordant significantly affected the intensity and color fastness. Tunjung tends to produce darker colors and has the best resistance for guava leaves (Psidium guajava), while alum is more effective for ambacang (Mangifera foetida) skin. Some materials such as pomegranate peel and guava peel show high resistance without the use of mordant due to their strong natural tannin content. Natural detergent Sari Lerak is proven to be the safest for maintaining color stability compared to commercial chemical detergents. These findings confirm that the highlands of West Sumatra have a potential diversity of flora as a source of sustainable natural dyes. This research provides a scientific basis for the development of environmentally friendly ecoprint technology based on local wisdom and supports the transition towards a sustainable textile industry in Indonesia.

Keywords:
natural dyes; ecoprint; mordant; colorfastness; ethnobotany

Resumo

Questões de sustentabilidade e impactos ambientais de corantes sintéticos têm incentivado a crescente exploração de fontes de corantes naturais ecologicamente corretas. Este estudo visa identificar o potencial de plantas locais das terras altas do oeste de Sumatra como fonte de corantes naturais e analisar o efeito de diferentes tipos de mordentes na variação de cor e na solidez da cor em tecidos de algodão. Dez espécies de plantas locais foram utilizadas como fontes de pigmentos naturais extraídos de folhas e cascas. Três tipos de mordentes − alúmen [KAl(SO4)2•12H2O], carbonato de cálcio (CaCO3) e tunjung (FeSO4•7H2O) − foram aplicados para produzir variações de cor. Testes de solidez da cor foram conduzidos utilizando três tipos de agentes de lavagem (Extrato de Lerak, Líquido Soklin e Alvejante Soklin) e analisados ​​quantitativamente com um espectrofotômetro em um comprimento de onda de 625 nm. Os resultados mostraram que o uso de mordente afetou significativamente a intensidade e a solidez da cor. O Tunjung tende a produzir cores mais escuras e apresenta a melhor resistência para folhas de goiaba (Psidium guajava), enquanto o alúmen é mais eficaz para a casca de ambacang (Mangifera foetida). Alguns materiais, como casca de romã e casca de goiaba, apresentam alta resistência sem o uso de mordente devido ao seu forte teor de tanino natural. O detergente natural Sari Lerak comprovou ser o mais seguro para manter a estabilidade da cor em comparação com detergentes químicos comerciais. Estas descobertas confirmam que as terras altas de Sumatra Ocidental possuem uma diversidade potencial de flora como fonte de corantes naturais sustentáveis. Esta pesquisa fornece uma base científica para o desenvolvimento de tecnologia de ecoprint ecologicamente correta, baseada no conhecimento local, bem como apoia a transição para uma indústria têxtil sustentável na Indonésia.

Palavras-chave:
corantes naturais; ecoprint; mordente; firmeza de cor; etnobotânica

1. Introduction

The global textile industry currently faces a major challenge in reducing the environmental impact caused by the use of synthetic chemicals, particularly artificial dyes. Synthetic dyes, while efficient, have proven to be a major source of water and soil pollution due to hazardous waste that is difficult to decompose (Teshayev et al., 2025; Hasanah et al., 2024). Various studies have shown that residues from synthetic dyes contain heavy metals and aromatic compounds that are toxic and carcinogenic to living organisms. This situation is driving a paradigm shift towards the concept of green chemistry and sustainable textile production, which emphasizes the use of natural, environmentally friendly, and renewable materials (Makhmudova et al., 2025; Lawanna et al., 2025).

Indonesia, as a mega-biodiverse country, has extraordinary potential to develop natural dye sources from various tropical flora. One region with outstanding biodiversity is West Sumatra, which boasts a highland landscape with a unique tropical mountain forest ecosystem. The biodiversity in this region not only reflects ecological richness but also holds significant opportunities for the development of environmentally-based creative industries such as ecoprinting—a fabric dyeing technique that utilizes the natural shapes and colors of plants (Pancapalaga et al., 2023; Risnasari et al., 2025).

However, this enormous potential has not been optimally utilized. The use of local plants as a source of natural dyes remains very limited among traditional artisans and textile industry players (Basri, 2023). Lack of knowledge regarding the types of pigment-producing plants, the dye extraction process, and the appropriate use of mordants (color-fixing agents) are major inhibiting factors. As a result, most artisans still rely on imported, environmentally unfriendly synthetic dyes, while the richness of local flora remains scientifically and practically untapped (Hadawi et al., 2025; Babamuratov et al., 2025; Noor, 2025).

Natural dyes have several significant advantages over synthetic dyes. In addition to producing soft and aesthetically pleasing shades, natural dyes are also skin-safe, environmentally friendly, and can be integrated into products of high cultural value. Natural pigments such as tannins, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, found in the leaves, bark, or fruits of plants, can produce a rich variety of colors and possess strong symbolic value when linked to local cultural motifs and philosophies, such as the deeply entrenched Minangkabau motif. The use of natural dyes in the context of ecoprinting, by embracing local motifs, has the potential to support cultural preservation while strengthening a creative economy based on local wisdom (Khaydarova et al., 2025; Mavlyanova et al., 2024).

However, one of the main technical challenges in the application of natural dyes is their poor colorfastness to washing, light, and friction. This factor is often caused by a limited understanding of the role of mordants as chemical binders between pigments and textile fibers. Various types of mordants, such as alum (alum), calcium carbonate, and ferrous sulfate (tunjung) have different effects on the final color, both in terms of intensity and durability (Abdikarimova et al., 2024; Tran et al., 2025; Chakramurty et al., 2025; Allayarov et al., 2025). Therefore, it is important to conduct systematic research to identify the interactions between mordant types and natural dye sources from local flora in order to determine the most effective and sustainable combination.

From a local perspective, exploring the potential of plants from the West Sumatran highlands is strategically important. In addition to supporting natural resource conservation, the results of this research can also serve as a scientific basis for developing eco-fashion and sustainable crafts that are competitive in the global market. Integrating local wisdom with environmentally friendly technological innovation will strengthen Indonesia's position in the global movement toward a circular economy and sustainable production. Therefore, research on natural dyes based on local flora in West Sumatra is not only ecologically valuable but also has broad socio-economic and cultural dimensions.

Based on these research questions, this study aims to: (1) inventory and explore the potential of local plants from the West Sumatran highlands as a source of natural dyes; (2) analyze the effect of various types of mordants on the variation and intensity of the resulting colors; and (3) test color fastness to various natural and commercial washing agents. Through an experimental approach and quantitative analysis, this research is expected to provide scientific and practical contributions to the development of sustainable natural dye technology, while also supporting the empowerment of the local craft industry based on Minangkabau cultural wisdom.

2. Methods

2.1. Research design

This research used a laboratory experimental approach with a quantitative descriptive-comparative design. The main objective of the study was to identify the potential of local plants from the West Sumatra highlands as natural dye sources and to analyze the effect of mordant types on color variation and fastness in cotton fabrics.

The experiment was conducted in four main stages:

  1. Scouring (fabric pretreatment),

  2. Extraction and Dye Application (extraction and dyeing),

  3. Mordanting and Fixation (mordanting and color fixation), and

  4. Wash Fastness Testing (color fastness testing).

All procedures were carried out in the Textile Technology and Natural Dyeing Laboratory in 2025.

2.2. Materials and equipment

  1. Main materials:

    1. 1

      Fabric substrate: 100% cotton (plain weave cotton), chosen for its high absorbency and excellent chemical interaction with natural dyes.

    2. 2

      Natural dye sources: Leaves and bark from 10 species of local plants native to the West Sumatra highlands, including Psidium guajava, Garcinia mangostana, Mangifera foetida, Persea americana, Mangifera indica, Dimocarpus longan, Archidendron pauciflorum, Pometia pinnata, Punica granatum, and Coffea spp.

    3. 3

      Mordanting chemicals:

      1. a

        Alum (Potassium Aluminum Sulfate / KAl(SO4)2•12H2O),

      2. b

        Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3),

      3. c

        Tunjung (Ferrous Sulfate / FeSO4•7H2O).

    4. 4

      Detergents:

      1. a

        Natural detergent (Lerak Extract),

      2. b

        Commercial liquid detergent (Soklin Liquid),

      3. c

        Bleach detergent (Soklin Pemutih).

  2. Main equipment:

Glass beaker, stainless steel dye bath, water bath, magnetic stirrer, UV–Vis spectrophotometer (625 nm wavelength), digital scale, and oven dryer.

2.3. Experimental procedure

  1. Fabric Pretreatment (Scouring Process)

The cotton fabric was first washed to remove dirt, wax, and manufacturing residue. The fabric was soaked in a solution of 15 g of soda ash (Na2CO3) and 15 g of Turkey Red Oil (TRO) in 400 mL of hot water (~80°C) until the water cooled. Afterward, the fabric was rinsed with clean water and hung to dry. This step aims to increase the fiber's ability to absorb dye.

  1. Initial Mordanting Process

Initial mordanting is carried out to open the pores of the fabric fibers and prepare them for stronger binding with the dye molecules. The fabric was soaked for 20 minutes in a solution consisting of:

  1. 150 g of alum,

  2. 25 g of tunjung (a type of bamboo),

  3. 12 g of table vinegar,

  4. 50 g of baking soda,

  5. and 1.5 L of water.

The fabric is then sun-dried without rinsing to maintain the natural mordanting reaction.

  1. Extraction and Dyeing Process

250 g of plant material (leaves or bark) is soaked in 1.5 L of water with 0.5 g of table salt added for 12 hours. The mixture is boiled until the water volume is reduced by one-third, then filtered to obtain a concentrated dye solution.

The mordanted fabric is soaked in the color extract for 12 hours to obtain the basic color. Next, to produce derived shades, the fabric is re-dyed with the addition of one type of mordant (8 g of alum, tunjung, or calcium carbonate in 200 mL of the basic color extract). The 30-minute soaking time is selected based on preliminary test results to ensure optimal pigment absorption.

  1. Final Fixation Process

This process aims to lock the color into the fabric fibers to ensure washability. The fixation solution was prepared by mixing 50 g of alum and 50 g of tunjung in 100 mL of water, allowing it to settle for 12 hours, and then using only the supernatant. The fabric was dipped for a maximum of 10 seconds, rinsed, then re-immersed in the fabric softener solution for 10 seconds and dried in the shade.

2.4. Color fastness test (Wash fastness test)

The color fastness test was conducted using three types of washing agents:

  1. Soap Nut Extract (natural),

  2. Soklin Liquid, and

  3. Soklin Bleach (commercial).

A 10x10 cm fabric sample was washed using 500 mL of detergent solution at 40°C for 10 minutes with constant agitation. After drying, the color fastness level was measured quantitatively using a UV–Vis spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 625 nm. The absorbance (A) value of the wash water was used to determine the degree of color fading. Interpretation of the results was based on the principle: the higher the absorbance value, the greater the color fastness (meaning lower color fastness). The procedure of analysis is presented in Figure 1.

thumbnail of Figure 1
Figure 1
Natural color experiment flow.

2.5. Data analysis

Quantitative data from absorbance measurements were processed descriptively and comparatively to determine differences in colorfastness levels between treatments.

The analysis was conducted on:

  1. Variation in plant species (10 species),

  2. Type of plant part (leaf vs. bark),

  3. Type of mordant (alum, calcium carbonate, tunjung), and

  4. Type of washing agent.

The average absorbance values ​​were compared to determine the optimal combination of plant species and mordant that produced the most stable color. Data visualization used diagrams to empirically demonstrate the pattern of differences.

2.6. Validity and replication

Each treatment was performed in triplicate samples to ensure the reliability of the results and reduce experimental bias. The validity of the procedure was tested using a control sample, a mordant- and dye-free fabric, to ensure that the color changes were purely caused by natural plant pigments.

2.7. Research ethics and sustainability

All natural materials are collected sustainably without harming the local ecosystem. Liquid waste from the dyeing process is reprocessed using natural filtration (sand, activated charcoal, and zeolite) to maintain environmental safety, in accordance with the principles of green textile technology and a zero-waste approach.

3. Results

The measurement data are presented in tables and bar charts for each variation of mordant and washing agent. An exploration of 10 plant species from the highlands of West Sumatra reveals that leaves and bark are potential sources of natural dyes, producing a diverse spectrum of colors. Table 1 presents the color palette produced from each plant source, both basic colors and derivative colors after the application of three types of mordants (Calcium Carbonate, Alum, and Tunjung).

Thumbnail
Table 1
Steps for making natural colors.

The study's results in Table 2 showed that the type of mordant significantly influenced the final color. This is consistent with previous research which stated that mordants function as dye binders to fibers, as well as color generators and modifiers. (Repon et al., 2024). In general, the tunjung mordant (FeSO4) tends to produce darker and more intense colors (for example, on Matoa leaves and Mahogany bark). Alum (KAl(SO4)2) often produces brighter colors, while calcium carbonate (CaCO3) provides a variety of colors between the two. This difference opens up opportunities for artisans to create a wider color palette from a single dye source.

Thumbnail
Table 2
Color Variations Produced from Local Plants with Different Mordants (CMYK Color Code).

3.1. Color fastness analysis

To evaluate color durability as see in Table 3, colorfastness tests were conducted on selected samples. The results of the wash water absorbance measurements are presented in the form of a bar chart to visualize the level of colorfastness.

Thumbnail
Table 3
Results of leaf and back samples.

4. Discussion

4.1. Color characteristics of local plant extracts

The extraction process of ten local plant species from the West Sumatra highlands revealed distinct color variations depending on the plant part used (leaves or bark) and their pigment content. In general, leaf extracts produced lighter colors, ranging from yellowish to brownish, while bark extracts tended to produce darker colors, ranging from dark brown, brick red, to blackish gray (Sari et al., 2024; Petrova et al., 2023).

For example, guava leaves (Psidium guajava) and pomegranate peels (Punica granatum) produced a dark brown color due to their high tannin and flavonoid content, which readily bind to cotton fibers. Meanwhile, ambacang (Mangifera foetida) peels produced a strong reddish color due to the presence of anthocyanins and xanthones. These findings align with research by Maharani et al. (2024), which explains that the diversity of chemical compounds in tropical plants influences the intensity and stability of the resulting color.

4.2. Effect of mordant type on color intensity and fastness

The use of mordants significantly influences the brightness and color fastness of dyeing results. The three types of mordants used—alum (KAl(SO4)2•12H2O), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and tannin (FeSO4•7H2O)—provide visually and chemically distinct results.

  1. Alum produces brighter and more transparent colors, particularly in mango (Mangifera indica) and avocado (Persea americana) leaf extracts. The aluminum ions in alum form strong coordinate bonds with the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups of flavonoid compounds, thereby increasing light reflection and color brightness (Widiana, 2021).

  2. Tannin produces darker and more muted colors, such as dark brown or greenish gray. Iron ions act as chromophore enhancers, forming stable iron-tannin complexes, increasing color fastness but decreasing brightness.

  3. Calcium carbonate showed moderate color results, but provided even color distribution, especially for anthocyanin-rich extracts such as ambacang skin.

Absorbance measurements at a wavelength of 625 nm showed that fabrics mordanted with tunjung had lower absorbance values ​​after washing, indicating better color fastness. Conversely, fabrics mordanted with alum showed increased absorbance values ​​in the wash water, indicating greater color fading. This confirms the findings of Salma and Eskak (2022) who stated that iron-based mordants are more effective in maintaining natural color stability than aluminum mordants.

4.3. Colorfastness to various detergents

Colorfastness tests showed significant differences between fabrics washed with natural detergents and commercial chemical detergents. Fabrics washed with Soap Nut Extract (a natural detergent derived from the Sapindus rarak fruit) showed the lowest level of colorfastness across all samples. The saponin content in soap nuts acts as a gentle natural surfactant, preventing the bond between the pigment and the fabric fibers.

In contrast, fabrics washed with Soklin Liquid and Soklin Bleach experienced greater colorfastness, especially in samples using alum mordant. The alkaline chemicals and bleaching agents in commercial detergents weaken hydrogen bonds and disrupt the dye-mordant complex.

Quantitatively, the absorbance of the wash water for samples with alum mordant increased by an average of 0.020–0.030, while for samples with tunjung (a type of bamboo) only increased by 0.008–0.012. This indicates that the combination of tunjung mordant and natural detergents produces the highest colorfastness. These results are consistent with research by Nofita and Dewangga (2021), which confirmed that washing using natural ingredients can maintain the color intensity of natural dyes because they do not contain bleaching agents and are gentle on the fibers.

4.4. Comparison of color fastness between leaf and bark extracts

A comparative analysis of leaf-based and bark-based dyes shows that bark extract has higher color fastness. This is due to the higher content of tannins and polyphenolic compounds in the bark tissue, which form stronger metal-organic complexes during the mordanting process.

Pomegranate (Punica granatum) peel, for example, exhibits excellent color fastness even without additional mordant. The high tannin content acts as a natural binding agent (self-fixative), able to bond directly with the cellulose fibers in fabric. Therefore, selecting the right plant part (leaf or bark) is a crucial factor in determining the intensity, durability, and efficiency of the natural dyeing process.

4.5. Environmental and sociocultural implications

The use of local plants as a source of natural dyes not only contributes to sustainable textile production but also preserves Minangkabau cultural identity through environmentally friendly craft practices. The ecoprint technique, which combines local motifs and natural colors, creates aesthetic, economic, and ecological value simultaneously.

This approach also supports the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 12), namely responsible production and consumption, by reducing dependence on synthetic chemicals and encouraging the use of renewable natural resources (Firoiu et al., 2025). The integration of traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches reflects a transdisciplinary approach towards sustainable craft innovation that aligns with green economy principles (see Table 4).

Thumbnail
Table 4
Summary of Main Findings.

Overall, the results of this study indicate that the flora of the West Sumatran highlands has great potential as a source of sustainable natural dyes. The combination of tannin-rich plant extracts, the use of iron-based mordants, and washing with natural detergents yields the most stable and environmentally friendly color results.

This research makes an important contribution to the development of green textile technology by strengthening the link between:

  1. Exploration of local natural resources (ethnobotany),

  2. Craft technology innovation (ecoprint), and

  3. Preservation of Minangkabau cultural values.

These findings confirm that the integration of local wisdom and global sustainability principles can form the basis for the development of ecoprint as a craft innovation model that is not only aesthetic, but also ethical and ecological.

5. Conclusion

The results of this comprehensive study demonstrate that local plants from the West Sumatran highlands have enormous potential as natural dye sources for developing environmentally sustainable ecoprinting. Experiments on ten plant species demonstrated that color variation and fastness are significantly influenced by the plant part, the chemical composition of the pigment, the type of mordant used, and the characteristics of the washing agent.

In general, bark extracts performed better than leaf extracts in terms of both color intensity and durability, due to their high tannin and polyphenol content acting as natural mordants. Pomegranate (Punica granatum) peels and guava (Psidium guajava) leaves were shown to produce stable colors, even without the addition of synthetic mordants, demonstrating the significant potential of these plants as sustainable dyes based on local resources.

The use of an iron-based mordant (FeSO4) yields the highest level of colorfastness, forming a strong metal-organic complex with the natural pigment and cotton fiber. In contrast, alum mordants tend to produce brighter colors but have lower washfastness. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) produces more neutral and even color results, but is not as strong as tunjung in maintaining color stability. This emphasizes that the effectiveness of a mordant is determined not only by the type of metal but also by its chemical compatibility with the pigment structure of each plant species.

Furthermore, fastness tests indicate that the use of Sari Lerak natural detergent is much more effective in maintaining color stability than commercial chemical detergents. The saponin content in lerak acts as a gentle and environmentally friendly natural surfactant, does not damage the dye-fiber bond, and supports the concept of sustainable textile production. Thus, the combination of local natural dyes, environmentally friendly metal-based mordants, and natural washing agents is an ideal strategy for producing ecological and durable ecoprint products.

From a theoretical perspective, this research enriches the scientific literature in the field of natural textile technology and sustainable craft technology by providing empirical evidence regarding the influence of chemical interactions between tropical plant pigments and various types of mordants on color stability. Practically, the results provide a scientific basis for the development of environmentally friendly textile craft products, while strengthening the integration of Minangkabau local wisdom with the principles of a circular economy and the green creative industry.

This research also has strategic implications in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 12 on "responsible production and consumption." Through exploring the potential of local flora and applying zero-waste principles, this study demonstrates that natural dyeing practices are not only an ecological alternative but also an innovation model that empowers local communities, increases economic value, and strengthens regional cultural identity.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available based on the reasonable request.

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Edited by

  • Editor:
    Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    17 Apr 2026
  • Date of issue
    2026

History

  • Received
    21 Nov 2025
  • Accepted
    06 Jan 2026
Creative Common - by 4.0
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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