Enterobacteriaceae contamination in raw chicken meat from Amazonas, Brazil: implications for food hygieneAbstract
Raw chicken meat is widely consumed and serves as an important vehicle for foodborne pathogens when hygienic-sanitary controls at the retail level are insufficient. This cross-sectional study evaluated the occurrence of Enterobacteriaceae in 88 raw chicken meat samples collected from supermarkets, butcher shops, and street fairs across the four urban zones of Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil, between June and September 2025. Detection of Salmonella spp. was performed according to ISO 6579-1:2017, followed by biochemical identification of Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, and other Enterobacteriaceae, including Citrobacter freundii, Proteus spp., and Shigella spp. Salmonella spp. was detected in 32.9% of samples, E. coli in 42.0%, and other Enterobacteriaceae in 11.4%. Higher contamination frequencies were observed in samples sold at room temperature and in street fairs, which exhibited poorer hygienic-sanitary conditions, whereas supermarkets generally showed lower contamination rates and better adherence to cold chain and hygiene practices. No significant differences were observed among chicken cuts or urban zones. Hygienic-sanitary assessments of 49 retail establishments revealed inconsistent use of personal protective equipment, inadequate cleaning of surfaces and utensils, and the presence of synanthropic vectors. These findings highlight the potential public health risks associated with raw chicken sold in informal retail settings in Amazon and emphasize the need for strengthened sanitary surveillance, improved vendor training, and targeted educational interventions to reduce consumer exposure to foodborne pathogens.
Keywords:
food safety; hygiene in handling; Salmonella spp.; Escherichia coli; retail markets; poultry meat
Resumo
A carne de frango crua é amplamente consumida e representa um importante veículo de transmissão de patógenos por alimentos quando o controle higiênico-sanitário no varejo é insuficiente. Este estudo transversal avaliou a ocorrência de Enterobacteriaceae em 88 amostras de carne de frango crua coletadas em supermercados, açougues e feiras de rua nas quatro zonas urbanas de Manaus, Amazonas, Brasil, entre junho e setembro de 2025. A detecção de Salmonella spp. foi realizada de acordo com a norma ISO 6579-1:2017, seguida da identificação bioquímica de Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli e outras Enterobacteriaceae, incluindo Citrobacter freundii, Proteus spp. e Shigella spp. Salmonella spp. foram detectadas em 32,9% das amostras, E. coli em 42,0% e outras Enterobacteriaceae em 11,4%. As maiores frequências de contaminação foram observadas em amostras comercializadas à temperatura ambiente e em feiras de rua, que apresentaram condições higiênico-sanitárias mais deficientes, enquanto os supermercados, em geral, apresentaram menores taxas de contaminação e maior adesão às práticas de cadeia de frio e de higiene. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os cortes de frango nem entre as zonas urbanas. As avaliações higiênico-sanitárias de 49 estabelecimentos comerciais revelaram uso inconsistente de equipamentos de proteção individual, limpeza inadequada de superfícies e utensílios e presença de vetores sinantrópicos. Esses achados evidenciam o potencial risco à saúde pública associado à comercialização de carne de frango crua em ambientes de varejo informal no Amazonas e reforçam a necessidade de fortalecer a vigilância sanitária, aprimorar o treinamento de vendedores e implementar ações educativas direcionadas para reduzir a exposição do consumidor a patógenos transmitidos por alimentos.
Palavras-chave:
segurança alimentar; higiene alimentar; Salmonella spp.; Escherichia coli; mercados de varejo; carne de aves
1. Introduction
Chicken meat is among the most consumed animal proteins worldwide (Batista et al., 2026; Alves et al., 2025; Guimarães et al., 2025; Rufino et al., 2025; Santos et al., 2024, 2025a, b) and is a recognized vehicle for foodborne infections, particularly in environments where hygienic controls and cold chain maintenance are limited. In Brazil, per capita consumption of chicken meat exceeded 45 kg/year in 2024, making it the most consumed animal protein in the country and increasing the population's exposure to foodborne pathogens through daily eating practices (ABPA, 2025).
Raw chicken meat is frequently contaminated with enteric bacteria, especially members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, such as Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli, which are important causes of gastroenteritis and invasive infections worldwide (Brătfelan et al., 2023; Cerqueira-Cézar et al., 2025). Improper handling, cross-contamination, temperature control failures, and undercooking are well-established factors that facilitate bacterial survival and transmission to consumers (Lai et al., 2023; Qu et al., 2024).
Informal or poorly regulated retail environments often present structural and operational deficiencies, including a lack of refrigeration, inadequate utensil sanitization, the presence of animals or vectors, and insufficient personal hygiene practices. These conditions can increase bacterial load and consumer exposure, especially in tropical urban environments, where high ambient temperatures favor microbial proliferation (Rodríguez et al., 2015; Shahanaz et al., 2025).
Observational studies at the meat-marketing level are essential for identifying real gaps in food safety that may not be detected by routine surveillance systems. By documenting microbiological contamination and hygienic-sanitary conditions at points of sale, investigations provide evidence to support risk assessment, guide interventions, and inform public health policies.
In the Amazon, Brazil, climatic conditions, rapid urbanization, and logistical limitations in cold chain infrastructure can further exacerbate food safety risks associated with the commercialization of animal-derived foods. High ambient temperatures, informal retail structures, and infrastructural constraints may favor microbial proliferation and increase consumer exposure to foodborne pathogens. Despite these challenges, epidemiological data on the microbiological contamination of raw chicken meat marketed at retail outlets in this region remain scarce.
Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the presence of Enterobacteriaceae in raw chicken meat sold in various commercial establishments in Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil, and to assess hygienic-sanitary conditions associated with marketing practices that may contribute to consumer exposure to foodborne pathogens.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study area and sampling
This cross-sectional observational study was conducted from June to September 2025 in Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil, to assess Enterobacteriaceae contamination in raw chicken meat marketed across the city’s four administrative zones, South, North, East, and West (Figure 1). A convenience sampling strategy prioritized densely populated neighborhoods, based on demographic data from the Amazonas State Secretariat for Economic Development, Science, Technology and Innovation (Manaus, 2021), to capture areas with higher potential exposure to retail poultry products. In each zone, the most populous neighborhoods were included in three independent sampling events conducted at different types of retail establishments. Raw chicken meat samples were purchased from supermarkets, butcher shops, and street markets.
Different chicken cuts were sampled to allow comparison between products sold with and without skin. As some cuts (e.g., whole wings, thighs, and drumsticks) are predominantly marketed with skin, skin was manually removed under aseptic conditions prior to microbiological analysis to ensure analytical standardization across samples. Of the total samples, 43 (48.9%) were classified as skin-on and 45 (51.1%) as skinless (Table 1). After purchase, samples were individually packaged, transported in insulated containers under refrigerated conditions (approximately 8 °C), and delivered to the Biology and Chemistry Laboratory of the Federal Institute of Amazonas (IFAM), Manaus East Zone Campus. All samples were processed within 12 hours of acquisition.
Sampling distribution of chicken meat cuts collected in different zones of Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil.
2.2. Samples collected for analysis
A total of 88 samples of raw chicken meat were analyzed, including thighs, drumsticks, whole wings, and breasts (n = 18 for each cut), as well as loins (n = 16). Processed products (e.g., breaded products and sausages), seasoned products, bones, and giblets were excluded from the analysis. Samples were obtained from 49 commercial establishments distributed across the four urban zones of Manaus, comprising 16 street fairs, 17 supermarkets, and 16 butcher shops.
At the point of sale, 32 samples were refrigerated, 32 were frozen, and 24 were sold at room temperature (Table 1). A clear pattern was observed between storage conditions and the type of establishment, as refrigerated samples were predominantly obtained from butcher shops, frozen samples from supermarkets, and those kept at room temperature from street markets. Given this overlap, storage conditions and the type of establishment were treated as complementary variables in the descriptive analyses.
2.3. Hygienic-sanitary variables assessment
Hygienic-sanitary conditions in retail establishments were assessed through on-site observations using a structured checklist informed by Brazilian regulations and prior studies. Evaluations included food handler practices (PPE use), cleanliness of surfaces and utensils, presence of residues or stagnant water, potential vectors, and contact between chicken and other meats. Observations were recorded systematically by three trained observers to ensure consistency and were linked to each establishment for analysis.
2.4. Sample processing and bacterial isolation
Detection of Salmonella spp. was performed in accordance with ISO 6579-1:2017 (Figure 2). In total, 25 g of each raw chicken meat sample were aseptically added to 225 mL of Buffered Peptone Water (BPW), followed by incubation at 37 °C for 24 h.
Selective enrichment was carried out by transferring 0.1 mL of pre-enriched broth into 10 mL of Rappaport-Vassiliadis Soy (RVS) broth and 1 mL into 10 mL of Müller-Kauffmann Tetrathionate-Novobiocin (MKTTn) broth. RVS cultures were incubated at 41 °C for 24 h, while MKTTn cultures were incubated at 37 °C for 24 h.
Aliquots from each selective broth were streaked onto Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate (XLD) agar and Brilliant Green Agar (BGA) plates and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Presumptive colonies of Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, and other Enterobacteriaceae were purified on Nutrient Agar and subjected to biochemical identification using Lysine Iron Agar (LIA) and Triple Sugar Iron Agar (TSI). Presumptive identification of other Enterobacteriaceae was based on colony morphology and biochemical profiles consistent with standard diagnostic criteria.
Reference strains of Salmonella enterica (0089) and Escherichia coli (0380), from the Bacterial Culture Collection of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), were used as controls. All analyses were conducted at the Biology and Chemistry Laboratory of IFAM, Manaus East Zone Campus.
2.5. Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and contingency tables, with Fisher’s Exact Test applied for categorical associations (p < 0.05). Analyses were conducted in R 4.3.2. Due to the exploratory design and sample size, multivariate analyses were not performed, and associations should be interpreted as indicative rather than confirmatory.
3. Results
3.1. Detection of Salmonella spp. in samples
Salmonella spp. (Figure 3C) was detected in 29 of the 88 samples (32.9%). Among the different cuts, thigh and whole-wing samples showed the highest frequencies of positive results, at 9.1% and 8.0% of the total samples, respectively (Table 2). Samples with skin accounted for 55.2% of positive results, while samples without skin accounted for 44.8%; however, this difference was not statistically significant.
Conditions for marketing chicken meat in retail markets and microbiological isolation of enterobacteria associated with the analyzed samples. (A) Meat sold in a butcher shop, with beef and chicken displayed together under refrigeration, highlighting the possibility of cross-contamination between different types of animal protein; (B) Chicken meat sold at a municipal market; the image shows whole processed chickens exposed to room temperature, without refrigeration, in direct contact with the environment, with the presence of mechanical vectors (flies and mosquitoes) and proximity to other meats displayed on an unsuitable surface (cardboard); (C) Isolation of Salmonella spp. in Xylose-Lysine-Deoxycholate (XLD) medium, characterized by the presence of black colonies due to the production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), with a darkened center contrasting with the reddish background of the médium; (D) Isolation of Escherichia coli in XLD medium, formation of yellowish colonies resulting from the fermentation of carbohydrates, promoting the acidification of the medium; There is also the occasional presence of black colonies, consistent with Salmonella spp., which stand out due to their dark center against the red background of the agar.
Distribution of positive and negative raw chicken meat samples according to cut type and presence or absence of skin (n = 88).
Considering the spatial distribution, the highest frequencies of Salmonella spp. detection were observed in the West and East zones (40.9% each), followed by the North (27.3%) and South (22.7%) zones (Table 3). Regarding the type of establishment, street fairs presented the highest proportion of positive samples (22.4%), followed by butcher shops (16.3%) and supermarkets (4.0%).
Distribution of positive samples according to zone and meat condition and establishments in Manaus (n = 88), Amazonas, Brazil.
Regarding storage conditions, samples sold at room temperature presented the highest proportion of positive results (15.9%), followed by refrigerated (13.6%) and frozen (3.4%) samples. Despite these differences in distribution, Fisher's exact test did not indicate a statistically significant association between Salmonella spp. detection and cut type (p = 0.76). Similarly, no statistically significant associations were observed between storage conditions within each zone (North: p = 0.411; South: p = 0.095; East: p = 0.214; West: p = 0.063).
3.2. Detection of Escherichia coli in samples
Escherichia coli (Figure 3D) was isolated in 37 samples (42.0%). The highest frequencies were observed in cuts from the thigh (13.6%) and drumstick (11.4%) (Table 2). Samples with skin accounted for 56.8% of the positive results. By geographic zone, the West zone showed the highest frequency of E. coli isolation (54.5%), followed by the South (40.9%), East (36.4%) and North (36.4%) zones (Table 3). Regarding the type of establishment, street markets showed the highest proportion of positive samples (26.5%), followed by butcher shops (16.3%) and supermarkets (4.0%).
Regarding storage conditions, samples kept at room temperature showed the highest proportion of positive results (23.8%), followed by refrigerated (13.6%) and frozen (4.5%) samples. No statistically significant differences were observed between the different cuts (p = 0.86). When stratified by zone, statistically significant associations were observed between the detection of E. coli and storage conditions in the North (p = 0.018), South (p = 0.032), and East (p = 0.046) zones, while a marginal association was observed in the West zone (p = 0.052). Furthermore, a statistically significant association was observed between the detection of E. coli and the type of establishment in the North (p = 0.038), South (p = 0.044), and West (p = 0.012) zones, while no significant association was observed in the East zone (p = 0.226).
3.3. Detection of Citrobacter freundii, Proteus spp., and Shigella spp.
Colonies suggestive of Citrobacter freundii, Proteus spp., and Shigella spp. were detected in 10 samples (11.4%). Due to their low frequency, these microorganisms were grouped and analyzed as other Enterobacteriaceae. The highest frequencies were observed in samples from the thigh (4.5%) and drumstick (3.4%), and skin-containing samples accounted for 60.0% of positive results (Table 2).
Among urban areas, the East (18.2%) and West (13.6%) zones showed the highest frequencies, followed by the North (9.1%) and South (4.5%) zones (Table 3). By type of establishment, butcher shops had the highest proportion of positive samples (10.2%), followed by street fairs (6.1%) and supermarkets (2.0%).
Regarding storage conditions, samples sold at room temperature had the highest proportion of positive results (5.6%), followed by those sold refrigerated (4.5%) and frozen (1.1%). No statistically significant associations were observed between the detection of other Enterobacteriaceae and the type of cut, storage conditions, geographic area, or type of establishment (p > 0.05).
3.4. Assessment of hygiene conditions in commercial establishments
During sample collection, observational assessments were conducted in butcher shops, street fairs, and supermarkets located in the North, South, East, and West zones of Manaus. These assessments were based on direct visual inspection at the time of sample collection and focused on marketing conditions, hygiene practices, and handling procedures.
A higher customer flow and more frequent handling of raw chicken meat were observed in butcher shops and street markets during peak hours. In butcher shops, the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by employees varied between establishments, with gloves and hairnets being the most frequently observed items. Raw chicken meat was frequently displayed and weighed near other types of meat (Figure 3A), and weighing surfaces were not consistently sanitized between different products. Occasional flies were observed, although no accumulation of garbage or domestic animals was recorded within these establishments.
Street fairs presented the highest number of observed irregularities. Raw chicken meat was commonly sold at room temperature, often without refrigeration (Figure 3B). Handlers generally did not use complete PPE, and improvised protective barriers, such as plastic bags, were commonly observed. The presence of domestic animals and synanthropic vectors was frequently recorded, as was inadequate sanitization of cutting utensils, which were often wooden.
In contrast, supermarkets generally presented more controlled marketing conditions. Chicken meat was predominantly displayed in refrigerated or frozen units, direct handling of products was less frequent, and handler PPE use was more consistent. Temperature control and product labeling were generally adequate, although isolated irregularities were observed in smaller neighborhood establishments.
4. Discussion
The present study demonstrated a high frequency of microbiological contamination in commercial raw chicken meat across different retail environments in Manaus, with 86.36% of samples harboring at least one enteric bacterium. From a consumer protection perspective, these findings reinforce the role of poultry meat as a critical vehicle for exposure to foodborne microorganisms, particularly in retail settings where hygienic-sanitary controls and cold chain maintenance are limited or inconsistently applied (Khalid et al., 2020).
The detection of Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Proteus spp., Shigella spp., and Citrobacter freundii indicates a microbiological profile that raises concern for food safety and public health. Although some of these microorganisms were identified at relatively low frequencies, their presence in meat intended for direct consumer purchase highlights failures in hygiene control along the production, distribution, and retail chain (Mohammad et al., 2017). In the context of consumer food safety, even sporadic detection of enteric pathogens may represent a relevant risk, particularly when combined with inadequate storage conditions and improper handling practices (Mohammad et al., 2017).
While Proteus spp., Shigella spp., and C. freundii were detected sporadically, their occurrence should not be underestimated. Members of the Enterobacteriaceae family have been increasingly associated with antimicrobial resistance and opportunistic infections, which amplifies their relevance in food safety monitoring programs (El-Saeed et al., 2024). Their presence in retail poultry meat suggests cumulative hygienic-sanitary deficiencies rather than isolated contamination events, reinforcing the need for preventive controls at multiple stages of the food supply chain.
The prevalence of Salmonella spp. observed in this study (32.9%) was lower than that previously reported in Manaus (Tirolli and Costa, 2006), but remains within the wide range described in studies conducted in Brazil and other countries (Perin et al., 2020; Silva et al., 2021; Bolkenov et al., 2024; Vega Quiñones et al., 2025). Such variability reflects differences in surveillance strategies, microbiological methodologies, and retail structures. From a food safety governance standpoint, these findings underscore the importance of region-specific surveillance systems that consider local market dynamics and informal retail practices.
Escherichia coli was the most frequently isolated microorganism, detected in 42.0% of the samples, supporting its role as an indicator of fecal contamination and inadequate hygiene during processing and retail handling. Similar prevalence has been reported in poultry meat commercialized worldwide (Wardhana et al., 2021; Elsharawy and Al-Zahrani, 2024). The consistent detection of E. coli across different retail environments suggests persistent weaknesses in hygiene control measures, posing a direct risk of consumer exposure to potentially contaminated products.
No statistically significant association was observed between bacterial detection and the type of chicken cut analyzed, corroborating previous findings (Perin et al., 2020). Likewise, the presence of skin was not significantly associated with contamination, although samples with skin tended to show higher positivity rates. This trend has been reported in other studies (Cook et al., 2012), while contrasting results highlight methodological differences in bacterial recovery from skin surfaces (Guran et al., 2017). Such variability emphasizes the importance of standardized analytical approaches in food safety assessments.
Clear differences in contamination patterns were observed among retail environments. Street fairs frequently exhibited inadequate storage conditions, including the commercialization of meat at ambient temperature and limited hygienic oversight. Similar scenarios have been described in traditional markets in Latin America, where higher Salmonella prevalence has been observed than in supermarkets (Jarquin et al., 2015; Donado-Godoy et al., 2014). These findings are particularly relevant for consumer protection, as informal markets often serve large segments of the population and operate with limited regulatory enforcement.
Supermarkets generally demonstrated better temperature control and hygiene practices, which may partially explain the lower frequencies of bacterial detection observed. However, the presence of contamination even in formal retail environments indicates that compliance with infrastructure requirements alone does not guarantee food safety, as previously reported in other studies (Regalado-Pineda et al., 2020).
Butcher shops exhibited intermediate contamination frequencies. Despite the common use of refrigeration, deficiencies such as inadequate hygiene practices and the handling of different meat species in close proximity were frequently observed. Comparable patterns have been reported in European contexts, where butcher shops showed higher microbial contamination than supermarkets (Zafar et al., 2024). These observations reinforce the need to combine refrigeration with appropriate handling practices to effectively protect consumers.
Additional hygienic-sanitary non-conformities were qualitatively documented during sampling, including inconsistent use of personal protective equipment, presence of synanthropic vectors, and the use of wooden cutting surfaces. Porous materials such as wood favor microbial retention and complicate effective sanitation (Moura et al., 2021; Lai et al., 2023), and their continued use has been associated with increased contamination in traditional retail markets worldwide (Sparaciari et al., 2025). Although observational, these findings highlight conditions that may facilitate microbial persistence and consumer exposure.
This study is subject to limitations inherent to its cross-sectional design and convenience sampling, which may restrict generalizability. Nevertheless, sampling across the four urban zones of Manaus strengthens its relevance to the local consumer market. Hygienic-sanitary conditions were assessed using a standardized checklist applied by trained observers, improving consistency while not fully eliminating observational bias. Due to sample size constraints, multivariate analyses were not performed, and observed associations should be interpreted as exploratory.
5. Conclusion
This study demonstrated a high frequency of Enterobacteriaceae contamination in commercial raw chicken meat across different retail environments in Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil, highlighting significant deficiencies in hygienic-sanitary conditions at the point of sale. The detection of Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, and other enterobacteria reinforces the role of raw chicken meat as a potential vehicle for consumer exposure to foodborne microorganisms, particularly in informal retail settings where temperature control and hygiene practices are inconsistently applied.
Higher contamination frequencies were observed in street fairs and in products sold at room temperature, whereas supermarkets generally exhibited better cold chain maintenance and lower contamination rates, although not completely free of microbiological hazards. The absence of significant differences among chicken cuts and urban zones suggests that contamination is widespread and primarily associated with marketing practices rather than product type or geographic location.
The observational assessment of hygienic-sanitary conditions revealed recurrent non-conformities, including inconsistent use of personal protective equipment, inadequate cleaning of surfaces and utensils, and the presence of synanthropic vectors, which may favor microbial persistence and cross-contamination. Although causal relationships cannot be established due to the study design, these conditions represent critical points for intervention.
Overall, the findings emphasize the need to strengthen sanitary surveillance, improve food handler training, and promote targeted educational initiatives to improve hygiene practices in retail poultry markets, especially in informal settings. Such measures are essential to reduce consumer exposure to foodborne pathogens and to enhance food safety in urban environments of the Brazilian Amazon. Future studies employing probabilistic sampling, quantitative risk assessment, and antimicrobial resistance profiling are recommended to better inform food safety policies and consumer protection strategies.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Federal Institute of Amazonas (IFAM) for the support that enabled the execution of this work, and the State Research Support Foundation (FAPEAM), which was fundamental to the development of this research. We also thank the team at the Center for Studies of Invertebrates and Vertebrates of the Amazon (NEIVA) for their support throughout the project's development. A. B. A. Amorim is a recipient of an undergraduate research scholarship from the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), and A. T. Oliveira is a research productivity fellow of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, process 310966/2025-6) and a postdoctoral fellow at the State University of Amazonas (UEA). P. H. R. Aride is a research productivity fellow of the Amazonas State Research Support Foundation (FAPEAM, process 01.02.016301.02472/2025-05).
Data Availability Statement
Data will be made available to authors upon request.
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Editor:
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