Fertilization and soil correction timing with limestone and calcium and magnesium oxide in sugarcane cultivation

Fertilização e correção do solo com calcário e óxido de cálcio e magnésio no cultivo da cana-de-açúcar

Abstract

Sugarcane is predominantly cultivated in highly weathered and acidic tropical soils, making soil correction and fertilization management essential for sustaining productivity in ratoon systems. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of limestone and calcium and magnesium oxides application, as well as to determine the optimal timing for fertilization in sugarcane. The experiment was conducted under field conditions in Pedras de Fogo, Paraíba, Brazil, using a randomized complete block design in a split-plot scheme over time. Seven treatments were evaluated, combining soil amendments (limestone or Ca and Mg oxides) with fertilization timings (0, 15, and 30 days after harvest) and the control treatment (fertilization 0 days after harvest). Soil chemical attributes were monitored at 30, 90, 150, and 270 DAH, at a depth of 0-0.20 m and 0-0.25 m, while leaf nutrient concentrations were assessed at 90 and 270 DAH. Tillering and productivity were also determined 90 days after harvest and at the end of the crop cycle, respectively. Fertilization timing significantly influenced nutrient dynamics in soil and plant tissue. The treatment with limestone associated with fertilization at 15 days after harvest (T3) showed the best agronomic performance, promoting higher soil levels of phosphorus, potassium, and calcium, greater tillering, and the highest productivity. Throughout the crop cycle, reductions in soil potassium, cation exchange capacity, and pH were observed, while soil zinc and foliar concentrations of calcium, magnesium, copper, manganese, and zinc increased at 270 days after harvest. In contrast, the highest foliar concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium occurred at 90 days after harvest.The application of limestone combined with fertilization at 15 days after harvest is the most effective strategy for improving soil chemical attributes and crop performance under the studied conditions.

Keywords:
Saccharum spp; sugarcane stubble; liming; soil fertility; nutritional management

Resumo

A cana-de-açúcar é cultivada predominantemente em solos tropicais altamente intemperizados e ácidos, tornando a correção do solo e o manejo da fertilização essenciais para a manutenção da produtividade em sistemas de soqueira. Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos da aplicação de calcário e óxidos de cálcio e magnésio, bem como determinar o momento ideal para a fertilização na cana-de-açúcar. O experimento foi conduzido em condições de campo em Pedras de Fogo, Paraíba, Brasil, utilizando um delineamento em blocos casualizados em esquema de parcelas subdivididas ao longo do tempo. Sete tratamentos foram avaliados, combinando corretivos de solo (calcário ou óxido de Ca e Mg) com épocas de fertilização (0, 15 e 30 dias após a colheita) e o tratamento controle (fertilização aos 0 dias após a colheita). Os atributos químicos do solo foram monitorados aos 30, 90, 150 e 270 dias após a colheita, a uma profundidade de 0-0,20 m e 0-0,25 m, enquanto as concentrações de nutrientes foliares foram avaliadas aos 90 e 270 dias após a colheita. O perfilhamento e a produtividade também foram determinados aos 90 dias após a colheita e ao final do ciclo da cultura, respectivamente. A época de fertilização influenciou significativamente a dinâmica de nutrientes no solo e no tecido vegetal. O tratamento com calcário associado à fertilização 15 dias após a colheita (T3) apresentou o melhor desempenho agronômico, promovendo maiores níveis de fósforo, potássio e cálcio no solo, maior perfilhamento e a maior produtividade. Ao longo do ciclo da cultura, observou-se redução no potássio do solo, na capacidade de troca catiônica e no pH, enquanto o zinco no solo e as concentrações foliares de cálcio, magnésio, cobre, manganês e zinco aumentaram aos 270 dias após a colheita. Em contrapartida, as maiores concentrações foliares de nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio ocorreram aos 90 dias após a colheita. A aplicação de calcário combinada com fertilização 15 dias após a colheita é a estratégia mais eficaz para melhorar os atributos químicos do solo e o desempenho da cultura nas condições estudadas.

Palavras-chave:
Saccharum spp; soqueira de cana-de-açúcar; calagem; fertilidade do solo; manejo nutricional

1. Introduction

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a tropical and subtropical species of the Poaceae family, with a C4 photosynthetic metabolism, considered a crop of high socioeconomic importance worldwide, especially due to its role as a major raw material for sugar and ethanol production (Zhao et al., 2023) and by-products (Silva et al., 2026). In the year 2024, the estimated global production of sugarcane was 1,939,782,021.25 tons, Brazil stands out as the leading producer (759,662,482 tons), followed by India (453,158,493.75 tons) and China (102,094,400 tons) (FAO Statistics, 2024). In Brazilagro-industries and sugar-energy mills continuously seek to significantly increase crop productivity; however, strong annual fluctuations in biomass yield and sugar content are observed throughout the harvest seasons, caused by biotic and abiotic factors (Zhao et al., 2022).

Sugarcane is predominantly cultivated in tropical and humid regions, where soils are typically highly weathered and acidic (Bernardo et al., 2019). Soil acidity directly affects physiological processes and the growth of sugarcane (Xiao et al., 2023), limiting agricultural productivity and making soil correction essential for proper plant development, with liming being the most recommended practice to neutralize this condition (Crusciol et al., 2017). Among the materials used for soil acidity correction, limestone (a source of calcium – Ca and magnesium – Mg) is the most widely used by producers (Pacola et al., 2023).

In general, limestone application is carried out as a broadcast over the entire area on the soil surface and incorporated to a depth of approximately 0.4 meters using a disc harrow and a subsoiler (Campos et al., 2022a). The application of this amendment is highly relevant for sugarcane cultivation, as it supplies nutrients such as Ca, the calcium has a structural function and contributes positively to the development of the sugarcane stalk and roots (Lu et al., 2026), and Mg, which participates in all physiological processes that depend on energy and photosynthesis (Koch et al., 2019). Additionally, limestone releases hydroxyl ions (OH⁻), which can interact with hydrogen ions (H⁺), resulting in an increase in soil pH and an improvement in the effective cation exchange capacity (Fageria and Baligar, 2008).

In addition to limestone, the use of calcium and magnesium oxides has emerged as an alternative for correcting soil acidity, as it can provide these nutrients in a more readily available form for plants over a shorter period, particularly at the early stages of crop development, when root establishment begins in the soil (Korndörfer, 2018). Furthermore, the use of Ca and Mg oxides contributes to increasing the availability of soluble phosphorus (P) in the soil and enhances microbial activity, leading to improvements in the physical and biological structure of the soil (Pang et al., 2019).

The importance of studies on liming management is highlighted by a meta-analysis of works carried out between 2000 and 2023, where positive effects were identified in correcting soil acidity with dolomitic limestone and calcium carbonate 14.12 and 15.19%, respectively, however, negative impacts were observed in correcting the potential acidity of the soil (H+Al), using the materials Calmasil, CaCO₃, burnt dolomite, residues, ashes and dolomitic lime, resulting in average negative effects of -52.35, -59.32,-39.32, -26.58, -18.07 and -14.3%, respectively (Makaza et al., 2026).

In addition to soil correction, topdressing fertilization after sugarcane harvest plays a crucial role in replenishing essential nutrients. It is a common practice in sugarcane mills and contributes to maintaining and increasing productivity in subsequent crop cycles. However, the efficiency of this practice may vary depending on the timing of application, highlighting the need for studies that evaluate the impact of different fertilization timings after harvest. The hypothesis of this study is that the timing of fertilization application in sugarcane ratoon crops influences nutrient use efficiency and crop performance, regardless of the soil amendment used. Therefore, the objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of limestone and Ca and Mg oxides application, as well as to determine the optimal timing for fertilization in sugarcane.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Location of the experimental area and climate characteristics

An experimental field was established in the agricultural area of Usina Giasa, located in the municipality of Pedras de Fogo, in the state of Paraíba, Northeastern Brazil (Figure 1A). The climate of the region is classified as Cwa, predominantly humid tropical with hot summers, according to the Köppen classification (Alvares et al., 2013). Total precipitation (PPT), maximum and minimum temperatures (MaxT and MinT, respectively), and relative air humidity (RH) were recorded throughout the entire crop cycle (Figure 1B).

Figure 1
Location of the experimental area in the municipality of Pedras de Fogo, Paraíba, Brazil (A), and meteorological variables of precipitation, temperature (maximum and minimum), and relative air humidity during the study period (B).

The study area has a history of several years of sugarcane cultivation; therefore, prior to the experiment, a soil analysis (0–0.25 m), the soil was broken up and dried in the shade, then sieved through a sieve with a 2 mm mesh opening. was conducted to assess its chemical properties, resulting in: pH (CaCl₂): 4.7; phosphorus (P): 255.00 mg dm⁻³; potassium (K⁺): 0.73 mmol_c dm⁻³; aluminum (Al³⁺): 0.00 mmol_c dm⁻³; calcium (Ca²⁺): 21.76 mmol_c dm⁻³; magnesium (Mg²⁺): 9.34 mmol_c dm⁻³; potential acidity (H⁺ + Al³⁺): 27.75 mmol_c dm⁻³; organic matter (OM): 27.52 g dm⁻³; sum of bases (SB): 31.84 mmol_c dm⁻³; and cation exchange capacity (CEC): 59.59 mmol_c dm⁻³, base saturation (V): 53.43 (%).Chemical analyses of the soil were performed by ATHENAS Consultoria Agrícola e Laboratório Ltda., following the analytical procedures described in the Soil Analysis Methods Manual of the Agronomic Institute of Campinas -IAC, supplemented by standardized methodologies from Embrapa (2017).

2.2. Experimental design

The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD), arranged in a split-plot scheme over time. The treatment factor (T1 to T7) was allocated to the main plots, while the evaluation periods (90 and 270 days after harvest – DAH; 30, 90, 150, and 270 days after harvest – DAH) were allocated to the subplots.

The treatments consisted of: T1: control (fertilization at 0 DAH); T2: (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH); T3: (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH); T4: (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH); T5: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 0 DAH); T6: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH); and T7: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH). Three double rows were used per plot, measuring 7.0 meters in width and 100 meters in length, totaling a useful area of 840 m² per plot.

2.3. Management and application of treatments

In the study area, the sugarcane variety used was RB 041443, developed by the RIDESA (Rede Interuniversitária para o Desenvolvimento do Setor Sucroenergético), in its third ratoon cycle. The Ca and Mg oxide used contained 46% CaO and 33% MgO, applied at a rate of 200 kg ha⁻¹, followed by topdressing fertilization at a rate of 460 kg ha⁻¹ (formulation 14-06-21), composed of urea, monoammonium phosphate (MAP), and potassium chloride (KCl). Dolomitic limestone (72% PRNT) was applied at 5,000 kg ha⁻¹. The need for liming was determined based on soil chemical analysis, as recommended by official fertilization and liming guidelines (Raij et al., 2001). The treatments were applied mechanically using a surface fertilizer spreader (equipment used for fertilization of sugarcane ratoon crops without soil incorporation).

2.4. Analyzed variables

2.4.1. Tillering

The number of tillers was determined at 90 DAH through the direct counting of all tillers present per linear meter in the two central rows (Silva et al., 2023). In each plot, 10 sampling points of 1 m each were evaluated, and the overall mean for each treatment was subsequently calculated.

2.4.2. Macronutrients and micronutrients in the soil

Soil sampling was carried out in all plots of the experimental area to establish the availability curve of macronutrients and micronutrients throughout the crop cycle. Samples were collected using a soil probe/auger at 30, 90, 150, and 270 DAH, near the planting row, in the two central rows.

Sampling times were defined according to the main phenological stages of sugarcane: 30 DAH (sprouting/emergence), 90 DAH (tillering), 150 DAH (stalk elongation), and 270 DAH (end of stalk growth). This approach allowed monitoring nutrient dynamics in the soil throughout the crop cycle and enabled comparison with the initial soil analysis performed before treatment application.

Soil samples were collected at depths of 0–0.20 m (30 and 90 DAH) and 0–0.25 m (150 and 270 DAH), using five subsamples per plot, spaced every 20 meters, forming one composite sample per plot. After collection, samples were air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm mesh, and analyzed in the laboratory to determine macronutrients, including phosphorus (P, mg dm⁻³), extracted by ion-exchange resin and determined by spectrophotometry using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1800, Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan); sulfur (S, mg dm⁻³), determined by turbidimetry; calcium (Ca²⁺, mmol_c dm⁻³), magnesium (Mg²⁺, mmol_c dm⁻³), and potassium (K⁺, mmol_c dm⁻³), determined by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS; Agilent 240FS AA), following the analytical procedures described by IAC.

Potential acidity (H⁺ + Al³⁺, mmolc dm⁻³) was determined using the SMP buffer method, exchangeable Al³⁺ was extracted with 1 mol L⁻¹ KCl and determined by titration, and Ca²⁺ was extracted using 1 mol L⁻¹ calcium acetate solution. Base saturation (V, %) was calculated as V = (SB/CEC) × 100; organic matter (OM, g dm⁻³) was quantified by spectrophotometry; sum of bases (SB, mmol_c dm⁻³) was obtained by summing Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and K⁺; cation exchange capacity (CEC, mmol_c dm⁻³) was calculated as CEC = SB + (H⁺ + Al³⁺); and soil pH (CaCl₂) was determined by potentiometry in CaCl₂ solution. All analyses followed the methodology described by the Agronomic Institute of Campinas – IAC (Raij et al., 2001).

In addition to macronutrients, micronutrients were also analyzed, including boron (B, mg dm⁻³), determined by the azomethine-H method with spectrophotometric reading; copper (Cu, mg dm⁻³), iron (Fe, mg dm⁻³), manganese (Mn, mg dm⁻³), and zinc (Zn, mg dm⁻³), which were extracted using a DTPA solution and quantified by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS; Agilent 240FS AA). All determinations followed the methodology described by the Agronomic Institute of Campinas – IAC (Raij et al., 2001).

2.4.3. Leaf diagnosis

Leaf sampling was performed by collecting the +3 leaf (the third fully expanded leaf with a visible collar from the top, using the middle third and discarding the midrib) (Malavolta, 2006) from five plants per plot in the two central rows, at 90 and 270 DAH. The samples were dried in a forced-air circulation oven at 60 °C until constant weight was achieved (Spironello et al., 1996). Subsequently, the dried leaves were ground and sent for chemical analysis to determine nutrient concentrations.

The concentrations of nitrogen (N, g kg⁻¹) were determined after sulfuric digestion, with quantification by titration; phosphorus (P, g kg⁻¹) and sulfur (S, g kg⁻¹) were determined after nitric-perchloric digestion, with readings by spectrophotometry (Shimadzu UV-1800, Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan); potassium (K, g kg⁻¹), calcium (Ca, g kg⁻¹), magnesium (Mg, g kg⁻¹), copper (Cu, mg kg⁻¹), iron (Fe, mg kg⁻¹), manganese (Mn, mg kg⁻¹), and zinc (Zn, mg kg⁻¹) were obtained after nitric-perchloric digestion and quantified by atomic absorption spectrometry; and boron (B, mg kg⁻¹) was determined after dry ashing of the plant material, followed by spectrophotometric (Shimadzu UV-1800, Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan) reading. All determinations followed the methodology described by ESALQ (Akita et al., 1989).

2.4.4. Productivity – tons of cane per hectare (TCH)

At the end of the crop cycle, productivity (t ha⁻¹) was determined by weighing industrial stalks (without burning) from the two central rows, using a hook-type industrial scale. Harvesting was performed over two meters at five points, totaling 10 m per plot for each treatment. The obtained data were extrapolated to t ha⁻¹.

2.5. Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using the R software (R Core Team, 2024). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Scott-Knott test were conducted using the ExpDes.pt package (Ferreira et al., 2021).

3. Results

Individually, the treatment factor (T) showed a significant effect on potassium (K⁺), sulfur (S), and organic matter (OM) at the 1% probability level (Table 1). For the factor days after harvest (DAH), there was a significant influence at the 1% probability level for phosphorus (P), potassium (K⁺), sum of bases (SB), base saturation (V%), and organic matter (OM), and at the 5% probability level for calcium (Ca²⁺), soil pH, and cation exchange capacity (CEC).

Table 1
Summary of the combined analysis of variance for phosphorus (P), potassium (K⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), sulfur (S), potential hydrogen (pH), base saturation (SB), cation exchange capacity (CTC), potential acidity (H⁺ + Al³⁺), base saturation percentage (V%), and organic matter (OM) in sugarcane ratoon subjected to different fertilization timings with lime and Ca and Mg oxide.

SV	DF	Medium square
		P	K+	Mg2+	Ca2+	S	pH
Treatments (T)	6	101.139	3.756**	4.509	11,240	22.998**	0.163
Residue 1	18	50.701	0.776	2.153	9,385	5.215	0.080
DAC	3	1,183.397**	110.438**	3.063	34,384*	7.923	0.353*
Residue 2	9	22.488	0.665	0.815	6.045	7.755	0.057
T x DAH	18	78.721*	1.195	2.589*	17.270*	11.775**	0.120
Block	3	63.035	1.803	7.657	31.270	11.732	0.456
Residue 3	54	35.248	0.683	1.199	7.572	4.764	0.080
VC1		14.03	22.08	21.57	20.45	25.80	5.15
VC2		9.35	20.43	13.28	16.41	31.46	4.33
VC3		11.70	20.70	16.10	18.37	24.66	5.13
SV	DF	Medium square
		SB	CEC	H++Al3+	V%	OM
Treatments (T)	6	46.053	57.168	13.076	68.425	61.729**
Residue 1	18	22.693	25.047	8.083	38.539	12.090
DAH	3	112.600**	55.907*	16.893	242.128**	196.09**
Residue 2	9	11.545	11.611	8.759	32.450	3.392
T x DAH	18	22.371	31.691	23.784**	70.678*	10.730*
Block	3	72.362	24.859	70.695	313.784	20.559
Residue 3	54	13.207	19.646	8.738	31.703	4.822
VC1		18.48	11.16	14.92	10.81	23.30
VC2		13.18	7.60	15.54	9.92	12.35
VC3		14.10	9.89	15.52	9.81	14.72

• ^**
  and *: Significant at the 1% and 5% probability levels, respectively, according to the F-test.
• SV – source of variation; DF – degrees of freedom; CV – coefficient of variation; T – treatments; DAH – days after harvest.

The interaction between treatments and days after harvest (T × DAH) was significant at the 1% probability level only for sulfur (S) and potential acidity (H⁺ + Al³⁺), while it was significant at the 5% probability level for phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg²⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), base saturation (V%), and organic matter (OM) (Table 1).

Regarding the number of tillers, the highest values were observed in T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH), T4 (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH), and T7 (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH), with 20, 19, and 18 tillers per linear meter, respectively. These treatments differed statistically from the control (T1), which showed the lowest value for this variable (15.92 tillers per linear meter) (Figure 2).

Figure 2
Tillering (number of tillers per linear meter) of sugarcane ratoon crop subjected to different fertilization timings with limestone and Ca and Mg oxides. Means followed by the same letters do not differ from each other according to the Scott-Knott test at the 5% probability level. Note: T1: control (fertilization at 0 DAH); T2: (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH); T3: (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH); T4: (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH); T5: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 0 DAH); T6: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH); and T7: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH).

Throughout the evaluation periods, it was observed that, for P contents, treatments T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) and T6 (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH) showed a greater influence on nutrient supply during the crop cycle, with higher peaks around 150 DAH (61.6 mg dm⁻³ and 63.44 mg dm⁻³, respectively), followed by a decline (Figure 3A). For S, treatment T2 (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH) resulted in the highest contents (14 mg dm⁻³) around 160 DAH, while treatments T1 (control – fertilization at 0 DAH) and T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) showed little variation across the evaluation periods, followed by a reduction in the other treatments (Figure 3B). Soil Ca contents were higher (19.5 mmol_c dm⁻³) under treatment T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH), with peak values at 216 DAH, followed by a decrease (Figure 3C). Regarding Ca, it is important to note that a considerable reduction was observed when comparing the initial soil characterization value (21.76 mmolc dm⁻³) with the values recorded at 30 DAH, which averaged 13 mmolc dm⁻³ across treatments. This indicates an initial decrease in exchangeable Ca in the soil after crop establishment. Among the evaluated treatments, only T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) was able to replenish Ca levels, compensating for both soil depletion and nutrient export by the crop, reaching the highest Ca availability at the end of the evaluation period (270 DAH). Furthermore, Mg contents increased throughout the crop cycle, reaching the highest values (8.1 mmol_c dm⁻³) at 166 DAH, with little variation among the other treatments (Figure 3D). In general, variations were observed over the cycle for potential acidity and base saturation across all treatments, with T6 (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH) showing the greatest reduction in potential acidity, while simultaneously promoting an increase in base saturation (Figures 33F). For OM, a reduction was observed in most treatments up to approximately 150 DAH. In contrast, T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) started with the highest values (19.13 g dm⁻³) and decreased over the cycle, whereas T7 (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH) showed a linear increase, reaching 15.41 g dm⁻³ at 270 DAH (Figure 3G).

Figure 3
Phosphorus (P) (A), sulfur (S) (B), calcium (Ca²⁺) (C), magnesium (Mg²⁺) (D), potential acidity (H⁺ + Al³⁺) (E), base saturation (V%) (F), and organic matter (OM) (G) contents in sugarcane ratoon crop subjected to different fertilization timings with limestone and Ca and Mg oxides. Note: T1: control (fertilization at 0 DAH); T2: (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH); T3: (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH); T4: (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH); T5: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 0 DAH); T6: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH); and T7: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH).

Among treatments, the highest K⁺ contents were observed in T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH), with higher values (4.91 mmol_c dm⁻³) compared to the control (3.63 mmol_c dm⁻³), resulting in an increase of 35.26% (Figure 4A). On the other hand, across evaluation periods, a linear reduction in K⁺ was observed, decreasing from 5.99 mmol_c dm⁻³ (at 30 DAH) to 1.43 mmol_c dm⁻³ (at 270 DAH), representing a reduction of 76.12% (Figure 4B). The highest values of SB were observed at 100 DAH (27.1 mmolc dm⁻³), followed by a reduction until 270 DAH (22.9 mmol_c dm⁻³) (Figure 4C). For CEC, a linear decrease was observed over time, with higher values (46.18 mmol_c dm⁻³) at 30 DAH and lower values (43.09 mmol_c dm⁻³) at 270 DAH (Figure 4D). Soil pH values were higher (5.57) at 30 DAH, followed by a linear decrease throughout the evaluation periods, reaching the lowest values (5.43) at 270 DAH (Figure 4E).

Figure 4
Potassium (K⁺) contents (A and B), sum of bases (SB) (C), cation exchange capacity (CEC) (D), and soil pH (E) in sugarcane ratoon crop subjected to different fertilization timings with limestone and Ca and Mg oxides. Means followed by the same letters do not differ from each other according to the Scott-Knott test at the 5% probability level. Note: T1: control (fertilization at 0 DAH); T2: (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH); T3: (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH); T4: (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH); T5: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 0 DAH); T6: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH); and T7: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH).

Individually, the treatment factor (T) showed a significant effect on boron (B) at the 5% probability level (Table 2). For the factor days after harvest (DAH), there was a significant influence at the 1% probability level for boron (B), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn), as well as at the 5% probability level for copper (Cu) and iron (Fe). The interaction between treatments and days after harvest (T × DAH) was significant at the 1% probability level only for boron (B) and copper (Cu) (Table 2).

Table 2
Summary of the combined analysis of variance for soil micronutrients, including boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn), in sugarcane ratoon subjected to different fertilization timings with lime and Ca and Mg oxide.

SV	DF	Medium square
		B	Cu 2	Fe	Mn	Zn2
Treatments (T)	6	0.00913*	0.0517	200.082	0.0084	0.114
Residue 1	18	0.0033	0.0197	151.603	0.0249	0.107
DAH	3	0.0354**	0.117*	1,122.233*	0.368**	1.426**
Residue 2	9	0.00112	0.0204	276.992	0.013	0.0842
T x DAH	18	0.00649**	0.0279**	147.857	0.0176	0.0675
Block	3	0.001121	0.0364	1,317.391	0.0189	0.0872
Residue 3	54	0.00155	0.0103	114.749	0.0151	0.1005
VC1		31.74	28.33	15.41	25.09	22.72
VC2		18.26	28.85	20.82	18.73	20.15
VC3		21.64	20.49	13.40	19.58	22.01

• ^**
  e *: Significant at the 1% and 5% probability levels according to the F-test, respectively.
• ²
  This indicates that the data underwent quadratic transformation to meet the assumptions of ANOVA.
• SV – source of variation; DF – degrees of freedom; VC – variability coefficient; T – treatments; DAH – days after harvest.

For B contents, it was observed that treatment T1 (control – fertilization at 0 DAH) presented the highest values throughout the crop cycle, reaching a maximum at 156 DAH (0.27 mg dm⁻³), followed by a reduction over the course of the cycle (Figure 5A). The other treatments showed similar behavior to each other throughout the sugarcane cycle, except for T2 (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH), which reached its maximum at 198 DAH (0.26 mg dm⁻³), although remaining lower than the control (Figure 5A). For Cu contents, treatment T2 (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH) showed the highest values, reaching a maximum at 180 DAH (0.45 mg dm⁻³), followed by a reduction at the end of the cycle (Figure 5B). The other treatments, including the control, showed lower values, while T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) and T7 (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH) exhibited an increase in Cu contents throughout the cycle (Figure 5B). For Fe contents, an increase was observed throughout the crop cycle, with the highest values at 270 DAH (74.30 mg dm⁻³) (Figure 5C). In contrast, Mn contents decreased over the course of the cycle, reaching the lowest values at 211 DAH (0.52 mg dm⁻³), followed by a recovery after this period (Figure 5D). Zn contents showed a positive trend, increasing from 1.8 mg dm⁻³ at 30 DAH to 3.49 mg dm⁻³ at 270 DAH, representing an increase of 93.8% (Figure 5E).

Figure 5
Boron (B) (A), copper (Cu) (B), iron (Fe) (C), manganese (Mn) (D), and zinc (Zn) (E) contents in the soil of sugarcane ratoon crop subjected to different fertilization timings with limestone and Ca and Mg oxides. Note: T1: control (fertilization at 0 DAH); T2: (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH); T3: (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH); T4: (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH); T5: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 0 DAH); T6: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH); and T7: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH).

Individually, the factor days after harvest (DAH) showed a significant effect on nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and boron (B) at the 1% probability level, and at the 5% probability level for copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) (Table 3). Additionally, the interaction between treatments and days after harvest (T × DAH) was significant at the 5% probability level only for boron (B). The absence of significant treatment effects on most nutrient contents suggests that the applied fertilization did not result in additional nutrient accumulation in the plant tissue. This response is likely associated with the adequate initial soil fertility for sugarcane cultivation, which may have supplied nutrients at levels within the sufficiency range, reducing crop response to external fertilization inputs.

Table 3
Summary of the combined analysis of variance for leaf diagnosis, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) in sugarcane ratoon subjected to fertilization timing with lime and Ca and Mg oxide.

SV	DF	Medium square
		N	P	K	Ca	Mg	S
Treatments (T)	6	8.805	0.0581	2.393	1.102	0.0668	0.0719
Residue 1	18	76.798	0.0228	1.194	0.5338	0.0883	0.054
DAH	1	291.055**	2.799**	356.96**	86.5202**	3.892**	0.353
Residue 2	9	7.687	0.0278	7.970	0.0434	0.1127	0.127
T x DAH	18	2.828	0.0326	4.178	0.6120	0.0330	0.053
Block	3	12.754	0.0763	16.672	1.4089	0.4663	0.026
Residue 3	54	5.647	0.0285	39.925	0.4356	0.0606	0.035
VC1		9.54	6.16	7.77	24.59	16.51	13.09
VC2		12.81	6.80	11.58	7.01	18.64	20.13
VC3		10.98	6.88	10.58	22.21	13.67	10.67
SV	DF	Medium square
		B	Cu 2	Fe2	Mn2	Zn2
Treatments (T)	6	5.601	0.0746	0.7091	1.249	0.646
Residue 1	18	2.509	0.1252	0.277	0.5979	1.4334
DAH	1	4.276**	30.738*	170.921*	17.43*	22.258*
Residue 2	9	157.99	1.149	6.1306	1.063	2.356
T x DAH	18	10.211*	0.157	0.2683	0.798	0.337
Block	3	1.008	0.186	2.831	0.740	1.827
Residue 3	54	20.751	0.2284	0.9944	0.990	1.263
VC1		11.02	14.90	5.75	14.69	20.42
VC2		14.39	45.13	27.04	19.59	26.18
VC3		11.52	20.12	10.89	18.91	19.17

• ^**
  e *: Significant at the 1% and 5% probability levels according to the F-test, respectively.
• ²
  This indicates that the data underwent quadratic transformation to meet the assumptions of ANOVA.
• SV – source of variation; DF – degrees of freedom; VC – variability coefficient; T – treatments; DAH – days after harvest.

Through leaf diagnosis in sugarcane plants, it was observed that, for N, P, and K contents, the highest values were obtained at 90 DAH, reaching 23.93 g kg⁻¹, 2.67 g kg⁻¹, and 16.59 g kg⁻¹, respectively, representing increases of 19.05, 16.4%, and 2.93%, respectively (Figures 6A, 6B, 6C). On the other hand, Ca and Mg contents were more pronounced at 270 DAH, showing increases of 54.14 and 25.72%, respectively, compared to 90 DAH (Figures 66E).

Figure 6
Nitrogen (N) (A), phosphorus (P) (B), potassium (K) (C), calcium (Ca) (D), and magnesium (Mg) (E) contents in leaves of sugarcane ratoon crop subjected to different fertilization timings with limestone and Ca and Mg oxides. Means followed by the same letters do not differ from each other according to the F test at 1% and 5% probability.

Regarding treatments in relation to DAH, there was no statistical difference for B contents. However, considering the evaluation periods, higher levels of this nutrient were observed at 270 DAH for T1 (control – fertilization at 0 DAH), T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH), T4 (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH), and T7 (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH), with increases of 25.23, 39.93, 47.44, and 51.68%, respectively, compared to the results at 30 DAH (Figure 7A). Fe contents were higher (119.71 mg kg⁻¹) at 90 DAH, with a reduction of 53.17% when compared to 270 DAH (Figure 7C). On the other hand, through leaf diagnosis, it was observed that at 270 DAH, Cu, Mn, and Zn contents were higher (9.90 mg kg⁻¹, 35.16 mg kg⁻¹, and 44.46 mg kg⁻¹, respectively), representing increases of 241.37, 55.98, and 61.79, respectively (Figures 7B, 7D, 7E).

Figure 7
Boron (B) (A), copper (Cu) (B), iron (Fe) (C), manganese (Mn) (D), and zinc (Zn) (E) contents in leaves of sugarcane ratoon subjected to fertilization timing with lime and Ca and Mg oxide. Lowercase letters compare treatments within each DAH (days), while uppercase letters compare DAHs within each treatment; means followed by the same letter do not differ according to the Scott-Knott test (p < 0.05). Note: T1: control (fertilization at 0 DAH); T2: (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH); T3: (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH); T4: (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH); T5: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 0 DAH); T6: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH); and T7: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH).

In this study, the highest values of tons of cane per hectare (TCH) were obtained in treatment T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) (126.16 t ha⁻¹), differing from T1 (control – fertilization at 0 DAH) (99.39 t ha⁻¹) (Figure 8). Additionally, treatments T4 and T5 also stood out, with yields of 113.84 t ha⁻¹ and 115.57 t ha⁻¹, respectively.

Figure 8
Cane yield – tons per hectare (TCH) of sugarcane ratoon subjected to fertilization timing with lime and Ca and Mg oxide. Means followed by the same letters do not differ from each other according to the Scott-Knott test at 5% probability. Note: T1: control (fertilization at 0 DAH); T2: (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH); T3: (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH); T4: (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH); T5: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 0 DAH); T6: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 15 DAH); and T7: (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH).

4. Discussion

In this study, the management of fertilization timing in sugarcane ratoon crops was investigated in association with the application of limestone and Ca and Mg oxides, aiming to understand how these inputs influence soil fertility, nutrient availability, and crop productivity. Previous studies have shown that acidity correction with limestone and Ca and Mg oxides positively affects soil fertility parameters, chemical composition, and the agronomic performance of sugarcane, although the effects may vary depending on the adopted management practices (Pang et al., 2019; Oliveira Romão et al., 2023; Pimentel et al., 2025; Rodrigues et al., 2026).

Proper and balanced fertilization increases the number of sugarcane tillers as a function of plant nutrition. In this study, the higher number of tillers observed in T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) and T4 (limestone + fertilization at 30 DAH) is associated with improvements in soil fertility parameters provided by this amendment, as previously reported by Campos et al. (2022b). In addition, T7 (Ca and Mg oxides + fertilization at 30 DAH) also showed a positive response for this variable, indicating not only the effect of Mg on plant growth, development, production, biosynthesis, and carbohydrate translocation (Pourranjbari Saghaiesh et al., 2019), but also the role of Ca as a signaling element in physiological, environmental, and nutritional changes (Thor, 2019). Ca plays a fundamental role in the establishment and stabilization of the root system after harvest, acting in cell wall formation, membrane integrity, and root meristem activity, which enhances early root recovery and regrowth (Kabir and Díaz-Pérez, 2025; Jiang et al., 2026).

The results indicate that the management of corrective application timing, associated with fertilization in ratoon crops, modulated the dynamics of soil chemical attributes throughout the cycle (Gonçalves et al., 2025). In general, the application of limestone or Ca and Mg oxides at 15 DAH favored greater initial availability of P and Ca; however, no increase in soil pH was observed. On the contrary, a gradual reduction in pH over time was detected across treatments, which may be associated with high rainfall conditions during the experimental period, promoting leaching of basic cations and contributing to soil solution acidification. Despite this, the initial improvements in Ca availability may have temporarily reduced phosphorus fixation and favored its maintenance in more labile forms, as discussed in studies with sugarcane grown in tropical soils (Souza et al., 2007; Campos et al., 2022b). The response of S and Mg throughout the crop cycle also indicates the influence of soil amendments on the dynamics of cations and anions in the exchange complex. However, since no increase in soil pH was observed, the effects of the amendments were not associated with effective acidity correction. Instead, the observed changes are more likely related to short-term modifications in ionic equilibrium and nutrient availability in the soil solution, which may influence adsorption–desorption processes and nutrient mobility without necessarily increasing pH-dependent charge or long-term nutrient retention (Bossolani et al., 2021; Bertol et al., 2022).

In this study, the higher K⁺ contents observed in treatment T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) can be explained, according to Ejigu et al. (2023), by the effect of liming in increasing soil pH and base saturation, expanding exchange sites and favoring the retention of cations such as K⁺ in the exchange complex. However, the reduction in K⁺ levels throughout the cycle reflects the high mobility of this nutrient in the soil profile, combined with crop uptake and losses by leaching, especially in medium- to sandy-textured soils (Zorb et al., 2014 The initial increase followed by a decrease highlights the immediate reaction of the amendment in the surface layer, with subsequent re-acidification caused by base leaching and nitrification of ratoon fertilization (Rossetto et al., 2004). However, in this study, no effective increase in pH was observed, suggesting that these processes were not sufficient to promote temporary alkalinization. Similarly, the reduction in CEC over time may be associated with decreasing pH.

The dynamics of soil micronutrients throughout the sugarcane cycle were strongly influenced. In this study, the lower availability of B in treatments with amendments, compared to the control, can be explained by the increase in pH, which promotes greater adsorption of this element to soil colloids and reduces its extractable fraction (Hou et al., 1994; Padbhushan and Kumar, 2017). Furthermore, variations in Cu levels were directly associated with treatments involving limestone, particularly T2 (limestone + fertilization at 0 DAH) and T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH), indicating that chemical changes influenced micronutrient extraction. In a study by Omollo et al. (2016), increased liming rates led to reduced levels of Mn, Fe, and Cu, confirming the inverse relationship between soil pH and these micronutrients. These findings reinforce that soil management is a key factor in regulating these nutrients within the soil–plant system.

Leaf diagnosis revealed a typical nutritional dynamic of sugarcane throughout the crop cycle, with higher concentrations of N, P, and K at 90 DAH, a phase characterized by intense tillering, which requires greater uptake of these nutrients associated with protein synthesis, energy metabolism, and osmotic regulation (Oliveira et al., 2016; Jaiswal et al., 2025). In sugarcane, this higher initial concentration is also related to the high mobility of N, P, and K in the phloem and their essential role in biomass formation (Mariano et al., 2016; Costa et al., 2016). On the other hand, the marked increase in Ca at 270 DAH reflects its low mobility in the phloem and its structural role in the cell wall, favoring accumulation in older tissues throughout plant development (Tang and Luan, 2017). This increase may also be associated with the gradual dissolution and residual effect of the limestone applied to the soil, depending on its Relative Neutralizing Power Total, which promotes a progressive release of Ca²⁺ throughout the crop cycle. In contrast, although Mg is considered a mobile nutrient in plants, the higher Mg concentration observed at this stage may be associated with continuous uptake promoted by soil-plant dynamics during the sugarcane cycle, including factors such as the gradual reaction of limestone, mineralization of soil organic matter, and the constant renewal of the crop root system, which contribute to nutrient cycling and Mg availability at later developmental stages. The increase in Cu, Mn, and Zn contents at 270 DAH indicates that root system expansion and metabolic demand for enzymatic and structural functions enhance the uptake of these micronutrients at advanced stages (Karthika et al., 2018), unlike Fe, which showed higher levels at 90 DAH, possibly due to its greater requirement during the initial establishment phase of the crop, when intense metabolic activity, photosynthetic apparatus development, and electron transport processes occur (Li et al., 2026).

The higher productivity (TCH) observed in T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) compared to the control highlights the positive effect of acidity correction combined with nutrient supply at the early stage of ratoon development. The observed increase is not explained solely by higher Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ levels in the soil profile, but also by improved distribution across soil layers and the resulting enhancement of chemical conditions favorable to root development. Limestone influences the improvement of the physical structure of the soil, which can favor plant development and result in increased production, since these ions, as constituents of aggregates, increase the formation of macroaggregates, acting as cationic bridges that assist in the flocculation of organic and inorganic colloids with a prevalence of negative charges (Safar and Whalen, 2023).

Considering the high demand of sugarcane for these cations, Costa and Crusciol (2016) demonstrated that even with surface application of limestone at adequate rates, subsurface acidity can significantly limit root expansion, restricting water and nutrient uptake. Additionally, fertilization timing plays a strategic role, and application at 15 DAH coincides with the onset of ratoon regrowth and tillering, a phase marked by intense root growth resumption and high nutrient demand.

The productive sustainability of sugarcane throughout the cropping cycle is a key factor for system viability. The high productivity observed in T3 (limestone + fertilization at 15 DAH) demonstrates that the synchronization between soil correction and nutrient supply at the beginning of crop establishment favored sugarcane development throughout the cycle. This treatment promoted greater nutrient availability during the initial growth stages, which likely contributed to better tillering, vegetative growth, and biomass accumulation, resulting in superior stalk yield compared with the other management strategies.

5. Conclusions

The timing of application of limestone and calcium and magnesium oxides significantly influenced soil chemical dynamics, nutritional status, and the productivity of sugarcane ratoon crops.

The treatment with limestone associated with fertilization at 15 days after harvest (T3) showed the best agronomic performance, promoting higher levels of phosphorus, potassium, and calcium in the soil, greater tillering, and the highest productivity.

A reduction in potassium levels, cation exchange capacity, and soil pH was observed throughout the crop cycle, as well as an increase in soil zinc levels and in foliar concentrations of calcium, magnesium, copper, manganese, and zinc at 270 days after harvest. In contrast, the highest foliar concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were observed at 90 days after harvest.

Future studies should assess the long-term effects of limestone and Ca and Mg oxides in sugarcane ratoon systems.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Federal University of Paraíba, Campus II (UFPB-CCA), and Giasa Mill Ltd. for their interest and support in carrying out this research.

The authors thank the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES - funding code 001).

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting this study’s findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

References

• AKITA, M., SILVEIRA, J.A.G. and DORELLI, C.A., 1989. Determinação espectrofotométrica de nitrato em extratos vegetais Piracicaba: Esalq.
• ALVARES, C.A., STAPE, J.L., SENTELHAS, P.C., GONÇALVES, J.L.M. and GERD, S., 2013. Köppen’s climate classification map for Brazil. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 711-728. https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2013/0507
  » https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2013/0507
• BERNARDO, R., LOURENZANI, W.L., SATOLO, E.G. and CALDAS, M.M., 2019. Analysis of the agricultural productivity of the sugarcane crop in regions of new agricultural expansions of sugarcane. Gestão & Produção, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. e3554. https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-530x3554-19
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-530x3554-19
• BERTOL, F.D.Z., MARTINS, A.P., DENARDIN, L.G.D.O., KUNRATH, T.R., SOUZA FILHO, W.D., GOULART, M.W. and ANGHINONI, I., 2022. Liming and grazing intensities effects on soil mineral nitrogen throughout the pasture cycle in a subtropical integrated crop-livestock system. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 46, pp. e0210042. https://doi.org/10.36783/18069657rbcs20210042
  » https://doi.org/10.36783/18069657rbcs20210042
• BOSSOLANI, J.W., CRUSCIOL, C.A.C., PORTUGAL, J.R., MORETTI, L.G., GARCIA, A., RODRIGUES, V.A. and REIS, A.R., 2021. Long-term liming improves soil fertility and soybean root growth, reflecting improvements in leaf gas exchange and grain yield. European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 128, pp. 126308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2021.126308
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2021.126308
• CAMPOS, M., MARTELLO, J.M., SIQUEIRA, G.F., GARCIA, A., SCUDELETTI, D., DIAS, P.P. and CRUSCIOL, C.A.C., 2022a. Lime rate in clayey soils influences chemical fertility and sugarcane yield. Plants, vol. 11, no. 16, pp. 2110. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11162110 PMid:36015413.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11162110
• CAMPOS, M., ROSSATO, O.B., MARASCA, I., MARTELLO, J.M., DE SIQUEIRA, G.F., GARCIA, C.P. and CRUSCIOL, C.A.C., 2022b. Deep tilling and localized liming improve soil chemical fertility and sugarcane yield in clayey soils. Soil & Tillage Research, vol. 222, pp. 105425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105425
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105425
• COSTA, A.D., ROLIM, M.M., BONFIM-SILVA, E.M., SIMÕES NETO, D.E., PEDROSA, E.R.M. and FRANÇA E SILVA, Ê.F., 2016. Accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in sugarcane cultivated under different types of water management and doses of nitrogen. Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 362-369. https://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.2016.10.03.p7205
  » https://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.2016.10.03.p7205
• COSTA, C.H.M. and CRUSCIOL, C.A.C., 2016. Long-term effects of lime and phosphogypsum application on tropical no-till soybean–oat–sorghum rotation and soil chemical properties. European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 74, pp. 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2015.12.001
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2015.12.001
• CRUSCIOL, C.A.C., ROSSATO, O.B., FOLTRAN, R., MARTELLO, J.M. and NASCIMENTO, C.A.C.D., 2017. Soil fertility, sugarcane yield affected by limestone, silicate, and gypsum application. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, vol. 48, no. 19, pp. 2314-2323. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2017.1411507
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2017.1411507
• EJIGU, W., SELASSIE, Y.G., ELIAS, E. and MOLLA, E., 2023. Effect of lime rates and method of application on soil properties of acidic Luvisols and wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) yields in northwest Ethiopia. Heliyon, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. e13988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13988 PMid:36873481.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13988
• EMPRESA BRASILEIRA DE PESQUISA AGROPECUÁRIA – EMBRAPA, 2017. Manual de métodos de análise de solo 3. ed. Brasília, DF: Embrapa, 573 p.
• FAGERIA, N.K. and BALIGAR, V.C., 2008. Ameliorating soil acidity of tropical Oxisols by liming for sustainable crop production. Advances in Agronomy, vol. 99, pp. 345-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)00407-0
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)00407-0
• FAO STATISTICS, 2024 [viewed 8 April 2026]. Crops and livestock products. Sugar cane [online]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize
  » https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize
• FERREIRA, E.B., CAVALCANTI, P.P. and NOGUEIRA, D.A., 2021 [viewed 8 February 2026]. ExpDes.pt: Pacote Experimental Designs (Portugues). R package version 1.2.2[online]. Available https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=ExpDes.pt
  » https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=ExpDes.pt
• GONÇALVES, C.N., FRACETTO, F.J.C., DA SILVA, W.R., INAGAKI, T.M., DOS SANTOS, R.L., FRACETTO, G.G.M. and DE OLIVEIRA FERREIRA, A., 2025. Sewage sludge and its biochar as organic amendments: modulating microbial activity, nutrient dynamics, and chemical properties in sandy soil cultivated with sugarcane. Geoderma Regional, vol. 1, pp. e01036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2025.e01036
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2025.e01036
• HOU, J., EVANS, L.J. and SPIERS, G.A., 1994. Boron fractionation in soils. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, vol. 25, no. 9-10, pp. 1841-1853. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103629409369157
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/00103629409369157
• JAISWAL, V.P., SHUKLA, S.K., SHARMA, L., GAUR, A., SRIVASTAVA, A. and SINGH, V.P., 2025. Physiological parameters and yield of sugarcane under precision N and K management in subtropical India. Sugar Tech, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 1154-1170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12355-025-01568-4
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s12355-025-01568-4
• JIANG, F., GAO, S., LI, M., ZHAO, Z., YANG, C., LIU, J.H. and LI, C., 2026. The multidimensional regulation roles and mechanisms of calcium in fruit quality. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, vol. 00, pp. 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1111/jipb.70192 PMid:41699440.
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/jipb.70192
• KABIR, M.Y. and DÍAZ-PÉREZ, J.C., 2025. Calcium route in the plant and blossom-end rot incidence. Horticulturae, vol. 11, no. 7, pp. 807. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070807
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070807
• KARTHIKA, K.S., RASHMI, I. and PARVATHI, M.S., 2018. Biological functions, uptake and transport of essential nutrients in relation to plant growth. In: M. HASANUZZAMAN, M. FUJITA, H. OKU, K. NAHAR, B. HAWRYLAK-NOWAK, eds. Plant nutrients and abiotic stress tolerance Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 1-49. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-9044-8_1
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-9044-8_1
• KOCH, M., BUSSE, M., NAUMANN, M., JÁKLI, B., SMIT, I., CAKMAK, I., HERMANS, C. and PAWELZIK, E., 2019. Differential effects of varied potassium and magnesium nutrition on production and partitioning of photoassimilates in potato plants. Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 166, no. 4, pp. 921-935. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppl.12846 PMid:30288757.
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/ppl.12846
• KORNDÖRFER, G.H., 2018. Manejo da fertilidade do solo para cana na região do cerrado: uso eficiente de nutrientes e adubação de sistemas agrícolas. In: II Simpósio sobre Nutrição de Plantas no Cerrado, V Reunião Centro-Oeste de Ciência do Solo, 1-4 Maio 2018, Goiânia. Uberlândia: Universidade Federal de Uberlândia.
• LI, D., LING, G. and YANG, S., 2026. Overcoming Mn-induced chlorosis in sugarcane seedlings by iron. Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 16, pp. 1739211. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2025.1739211 PMid:41658553.
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2025.1739211
• LU, Q., CHEN, S., SHAN, B., WEI, A., LUO, Y., WU, L. and CHEN, Z., 2026. Rhizosphere microbiome dynamics and hormonal interactions regulating tiller development in sugarcane cultivars. Scientific Reports, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 14500. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-38474-y PMid:41866543.
  » https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-38474-y
• MAKAZA, W., KHIARI, L. and EL ACHABY, M., 2026. The meta-analysis study on the effects of the quality of lime materials on the soil physicochemical properties and crop yields in acid soils. Frontiers in Soil Science, vol. 6, pp. 1725559. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoil.2026.1725559
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoil.2026.1725559
• MALAVOLTA, E., 2006. Manual de nutrição mineral de plantas São Paulo: Agronômica Ceres, 631 p.
• MARIANO, E., LEITE, J.M., VIEIRA‐MEGDA, M.X., CIAMPITTI, I.A., VITTI, A.C., FARONI, C.E. and TRIVELIN, P.C., 2016. Biomass and nutrient content by sugarcane as affected by fertilizer nitrogen sources. Crop Science, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 1234-1244. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.06.0349
  » https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.06.0349
• OLIVEIRA ROMÃO, C., TOSTO, M.S.L., SANTOS, S.A., PIRES, A.J.V., RIBEIRO, O.L., ALBUQUERQUE MARANHÃO, C.M. and CARVALHO, G.G.P., 2023. Nutritive profile, digestibility, and carbohydrate fractionation of three sugarcane genotypes treated with calcium oxide. Agronomy, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 733. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13030733
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13030733
• OLIVEIRA, R.I., MEDEIROS, M.R.F.A., FREIRE, C.S., FREIRE, F.J., NETO, D.E.S. and OLIVEIRA, E.C.A., 2016. Nutrient partitioning and nutritional requirement in sugarcane. Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 10, pp. 69-75.
• OMOLLO, J.O., SEMU, E., MSAKY, J. and OWUOR, P., 2016. Effects of cropping systems and agricultural lime on soil properties and nutrient content of sugarcane on acidified soils of Kisumu County, Kenya. Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 97-111. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajaf.20160404.14
  » https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajaf.20160404.14
• PACOLA, M., GUIMARÃES, T.M., RIGON, J.P.G., JACOMASSI, L.M., BOSSOLANI, J.W., VIVEIROS, J. and CRUSCIOL, C.A.C., 2023. Soil tillage systems and forms of lime application on soil attribute enhancements in ratoon sugarcane. Soil Use and Management, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 1388-1402. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12924
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12924
• PADBHUSHAN, R. and KUMAR, D., 2017. Fractions of soil boron: A review. Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 155, no. 7, pp. 1023-1032. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859617000181
  » https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859617000181
• PANG, Z., TAYYAB, M., KONG, C., HU, C., ZHU, Z., WEI, X. and YUAN, Z., 2019. Liming positively modulates microbial community composition and function of sugarcane fields. Agronomy (Basel), vol. 9, no. 12, pp. 808. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9120808
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9120808
• PIMENTEL, G.V., SILVA, L.D.R., MOREIRA, S.G., GODINHO, S.H.M. and CHALES, A.S., 2025. Surface application of soil acidity amendments and agricultural gypsum alter soil fertility and sugarcane yield. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-025-02793-2
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-025-02793-2
• POURRANJBARI SAGHAIESH, S., SOURI, M.K. and MOGHADDAM, M., 2019. Effects of different magnesium levels on some morphophysiological characteristics and nutrient elements uptake in Khatouni melons (Cucumis melo var. inodorus). Journal of Plant Nutrition, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 27-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2018.1544256
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2018.1544256
• R CORE TEAM, 2024 [viewed 8 February 2026]. R: A language and environment for statistical computing[online]. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available from: https://www.R-project.org/
  » https://www.R-project.org/
• RAIJ, B.V., ANDRADE, J.C., CANTARELLA, H. and QUAGGIO, J.A., 2001. Análise química para avaliação da fertilidade de solos tropicais Campinas: Instituto Agronômico, 285 p.
• RODRIGUES, M., SILVEIRA, C.A.P., CEZAR, E., DOS SANTOS, G.L.A.A., ROMAGNA, L. and NANNI, M.R., 2026. Limestone mining coproducts enhance soil pH and micronutrient availability in tropical sugarcane systems. Earth Critical Zone, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 100079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecz.2026.100079
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecz.2026.100079
• ROSSETTO, R., SPIRONELLO, A., CANTARELLA, H. and QUAGGIO, J.A., 2004. Sugarcane response to liming and potassium fertilization. Bragantia, vol. 63, pp. 105-119. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0006-87052004000100011
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/S0006-87052004000100011
• SAFAR, F. and WHALEN, J.K., 2023. Mechanical stability of newly-formed soil macroaggregates influenced by calcium concentration and the calcium counter-anion. Geoderma, vol. 430, pp. 116333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116333
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116333
• SILVA, J.H.B., ALMEIDA, L.J.M., SILVA, A.V., ARAÚJO, J.R.E.S., SANTOS, J.P.O., SILVA, A.J., SILVA, C.M., TARGINO, V.A., SANTOS, S.C.S., PESSOA, R.M.S., ANDRADE, F.H.A., PEREIRA-NETO, F., SILVA, B.O.T. and MIELEZRSKI, F., 2023. Filter cake increases sugarcane yield. Brazilian Journal of Biology, vol. 83, pp. e273414. https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.273414 PMid:37283339.
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.273414
• SILVA, J.H.B., MIELEZRSKI, F., SILVA, J.F., SILVA, L.D.R., LIMA CRUZ, J.M.F., OLIVEIRA SANTOS, J.P. and SILVA, A.V., 2026. Use of enriched filter cake and its residual effect on sugarcane. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-026-03148-1
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-026-03148-1
• SOUZA, R.F.D., FAQUIN, V., ANDRADE, A.T.D. and TORRES, P.R.F., 2007. Formas de fósforo em solos sob influência da calagem e adubação orgânica. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 1535-1544. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832007000600030
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832007000600030
• SPIRONELLO, A., RAIJ, B., VAN PENATTI, C.P., CANTARELLA, H., MORELLI, J.L., ORLANDO FILHO, J., LANDELL, M.G.A. and ROSSETTO, R., 1996. Cana de açúcar. In: B. VAN RAIJ, H. CANTARELLA, J.A. QUAGGIO, A.M.C. FURLANI, eds. Recomendações de adubação e calagem para o estado de São Paulo Campinas: IAC, pp. 237-239.
• TANG, R.J. and LUAN, S., 2017. Regulation of calcium and magnesium homeostasis in plants: from transporters to signaling network. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, vol. 39, pp. 97-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2017.06.009 PMid:28709026.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2017.06.009
• THOR, K., 2019. Calcium: nutrient and messenger. Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 10, pp. 440. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00440 PMid:31073302.
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00440
• XIAO, J., LIANG, T., YANG, S. and TAN, H., 2023. Do full mechanized management strategies destroy soil health and fertility in sugarcane fields? Catena, vol. 224, pp. 107000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.107000
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.107000
• ZHAO, Y., LIU, J., HUANG, H., ZAN, F., ZHAO, P., ZHAO, J. and WU, C., 2022. Genetic improvement of sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) contributed to high sucrose content in China based on an analysis of newly developed varieties. Agriculture, vol. 12, no. 11, pp. 1789. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111789
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111789
• ZHAO, Y., YU, L.X., AI, J., ZHANG, Z.F., DENG, J. and ZHANG, Y.B., 2023. Climate variations in the low-latitude plateau contribute to different sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) yields and sugar contents in China. Plants, vol. 12, no. 14, pp. 2712. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12142712 PMid:37514326.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12142712
• ZORB, C., SENBAYRAM, M. and PEITER, E., 2014. Potassium in agriculture–status and perspectives. Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 171, no. 9, pp. 656-669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2013.08.008 PMid:24140002.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2013.08.008

Edited by

• Editor:
  Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  27 July 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  18 Apr 2026
• Accepted
  26 May 2026