| Microtasks |
Microtasking (Sivula & Kantola, 2016)
Microtasks (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015)
Volunteer microtask, casual game microtask, microtasks market, microtask forced labor, educational microtask (Good & Su, 2013)
Crowdsourcing of simple tasks (Schenk & Guittard, 2011)
Virtual labor marketplaces (Prpic et al., 2015)
Web-based crowdsourcing (Majchrzak & Malhotra, 2013)
Crowd processing systems (Faber & Matthes, 2016)
Integrative sourcing with fixed remuneration (Schuurman et al., 2012)
Support (Zogaj, Bretschneider, & Leimeister, 2014)
Collaborative science project model (Saxton, Oh, & Kishore, 2013)
Microtasker (Poblet et al., 2018)
Micro-task (Bhatti, Gao, & Chen, 2020) |
- Paid or unpaid work (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015; Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- Low remuneration, when available (Prpic et al., 2015; Schuurman et al., 2012; Schenk & Guittard, 2011);
- Low involvement (Schenk & Guittard, 2011);
- Large volume of collaborating individuals (Faber & Matthes, 2016; Good & Su, 2013; Schenk & Guittard, 2011; Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- Low complexity tasks (Bhatti et al., 2020; Majchrzak & Malhotra, 2013; Schenk & Guittard, 2011; Schuurman et al., 2012; Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- Fast, easy, specific, and independent tasks (Bhatti et al., 2020; Poblet, García-Cuesta, & Casanovas, 2018). |
| Competition |
Tournament crowdsourcing (TC) or ideas competition (Prpic et al., 2015)
Mega innovation competition (Good & Su, 2013)
Contests (Nakatsu, Grossman, & Iacovou, 2014)
Co-creation boundary management (Majchrzak & Malhotra, 2013)
Selective sourcing crowd without assessment, selective sourcing with crowd assessment (Schuurman et al., 2012)
Innovation development (Zogaj et al., 2014) |
- Work rewarded with awards, monetary or not (Good & Su, 2013; Majchrzak & Malhotra, 2013; Prpic et al., 2015; Schuurman et al., 2012; Zogaj et al., 2014);
- Volume of individuals varied, depending on the complexity of the activity, which can be groups or individuals (Prpic et al., 2015; Schuurman et al., 2012);
- Need for minimally specialized knowledge in the field of activity (Nakatsu, Grossman, & Iacovou, 2014; Prpic et al., 2015; Zogaj et al., 2014);
- Possibility of peer assessment throughout the competition (Schuurman et al., 2012). |
| Evaluations |
Crowdevaluation (Sivula & Kantola, 2016)
Consumer report model (Saxton et al., 2013)
Customer-driven innovation (Nakatsu, Grossman, & Iacovou, 2014) |
- Work rewarded monetarily or not (Nakatsu et al., 2014; Saxton et al., 2013; Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- Feedback from individuals regarding a particular product or service offered by an organization (Nakatsu et al., 2014; Sivula & Kantola, 2016). |
| Complex tasks |
Macrotasking (Sivula & Kantola, 2016)
Crowdsourcing for innovation challenges (Majchrzak & Malhotra, 2013)
Crowd solving systems (Faber & Matthes, 2016)
Crowdsourcing of complex tasks (Schenk & Guittard, 2011)
Mega hard game (Good & Su, 2013)
Complex-task (Bhatti et al., 2020)
Macro-task (Bhatti et al., 2020) |
- Jobs usually rewarded monetarily (Bhatti et al., 2020; Schenk & Guittard, 2011);
- Solution of difficult problems and complex tasks (Faber & Matthes, 2016; Schenk & Guittard, 2011);
- Selection of a working group with specific characteristics and knowledge (Schenk & Guittard, 2011; Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- Greater involvement of individuals;
- Collaboration through calls on platforms (Majchrzak & Malhotra, 2013);
- Possible decomposition of complex tasks to smaller sub-tasks (Bhatti et al., 2020). |
| Classification |
Terms used in the literature and reference authors |
Characteristics |
| Financing |
Crowdfunding for a project, crowdfunding in an organization, crowdfunding as a loan (Sivula & Kantola, 2016)
Crowdfunding platforms (Nakatsu et al., 2014)
Funding (Zogaj et al., 2014)
Peer-to-peer social financing model (Saxton et al., 2013) |
- Participation can generate a financial return for those who participate (Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- Crowdfunding by the community or by individuals involved in a particular project (Nakatsu et al., 2014; Saxton et al., 2013; Sivula & Kantola, 2015; Zogaj et al., 2014);
- Financing can take place either without consideration, or in the form of a loan (Sivula & Kantola, 2016). |
| Design |
Crowdcreation (Sivula & Kantola, 2016)
Integrative sourcing with success-based remuneration (Schuurman et al., 2012)
Product design model, citizen media production model, digital goods sales model (Saxton et al., 2013)
Design (Zogaj et al., 2014)
Idea generation (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015)
Crowdsourcing of creative tasks (Schenk & Guittard, 2011)
Creative task (Bhatti et al., 2020) |
- Jobs usually financially rewarded (Schuurman et al., 2012; Schenk & Guittard, 2011);
- Individuals develop products and can offer them on platforms (Saxton et al., 2013; Schuurman et al., 2012; Zogaj et al., 2014);
- Need of specific knowledge for the development of items (Zogaj et al., 2014);
- May rely on the validation by experts (Bhatti et al., 2020). |
| Content development |
Integrative sourcing without remuneration (Schuurman et al., 2012)
Crowd creation systems (Faber & Matthes, 2016)
Knowledge base building model (Saxton et al., 2013)
Wikies, citizen journalism (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015)
Social computing (Poblet et al., 2018) |
- Jobs usually not monetarily rewarded (Schuurman et al., 2012);
- Result from collective work (Faber & Matthes, 2016; Saxton et al., 2013; Poblet et al., 2018);
- Any individual may contribute (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015);
- Individuals can add, delete, and edit someone else’s content (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015). |
Software development |
Collaborative software development model (Saxton et al., 2013)
Open-source software (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015) |
- Jobs may be rewarded monetarily or not (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015);
- Collaborative software development and improvement (Saxton et al.,);
- Need of specific knowledge (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015);
- Individuals ‘motivated’ by their involvement in the field of computational development (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015). |
| Voting |
Crowdvoting (Sivula & Kantola, 2016)
Crowd rating systems (Faber & Matthes, 2016) |
- Work usually not financially rewarded, used internally to improve services provided by an organization (Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- Wisdom of the crowd used to vote on topics on a platform (Faber & Matthes, 2016). |
| Knowledge diffusion |
Crowdwisdom (Sivula & Kantola, 2016)
Reporter (Poblet et al., 2018) |
- Monetary or unpaid work (Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- Organization employs the crowd to increase its knowledge, through innovative ideas or the dissemination of knowledge (Sivula & Kantola, 2016);
- People can offer firsthand information (Poblet et al., 2018). |
| Open collaboration |
Open collaboration (Prpic et al., 2015) |
- Work that is usually not paid with money (Prpic et al., 2015);
- Use of social networks and intermediary platforms or wikies in the search for solvers (Prpic et al., 2015);
- Problems or opportunities posted in information technology media (Prpic et al., 2015). |
| Sales |
Marketing and sales (Zogaj et al., 2014) |
- Work usually paid for in the form of fees or participation (Zogaj et al., 2014);
- Platforms that help organizations define markets and use the crowd as a sales amplifier (Zogaj et al., 2014). |
| Classification |
Terms used in the literature and reference authors |
Characteristics |
| Collaboration intermediaries |
Model with intermediary (Saxton et al., 2013) |
- Work usually paid with money (Saxton et al., 2013);
- Platform aims to serve as middleman between organizations and individuals willing to collaborate with each other (Saxton et al., 2013);
- Medium or low levels of voluntary collaboration, but with a guaranteed high return (Saxton et al., 2013). |
| Public projects |
Public participation (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015) |
- Usually unpaid or low-cost work (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015);
- Public participation in issues related to public planning and public projects (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015);
- Citizen involvement in the development of public policies, ensuring government commitment (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015). |
| Citizen science |
Citizen science (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015) |
- Usually unpaid, voluntary work (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015);
- Involvement in basic or highly sophisticated and complex activities (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015);
- Usually, the participation happens due to personal interest or curiosity, or even because of the individual’s sense of responsibility (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015);
- Use of platforms such as social networks to engage participants (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015). |
| Sharing |
Crowdsharing applications (Nakatsu et al., 2014) |
- Provision of the service may be paid with money or not (Nakatsu et al., 2014);
- Sharing spaces, services, and knowledge (Nakatsu et al., 2014);
- Classification covers the sharing of both goods and knowledge (Nakatsu et al., 2014). |
An Aggregate Taxonomy for Crowdsourcing Platforms, their Characteristics, and Intents
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