Assessment of the Conservation Status of Springs: A Tool for Water ManagementAbstract
Springs sustain multiple ecosystem services, highlighting the need to assess and ensure their conservation status. This study aimed to develop a tool for the integrated assessment of springs in two watersheds in southeastern Brazil characterized by contrasting environmental and geographic conditions. The tool, named PANÁgua, determines conservation status through environmental monitoring, literature review, and spatial analysis. The results demonstrated the tool’s applicability and versatility, producing outcomes consistent with the specific characteristics of each ecosystem. Springs in the Mineirinho stream were classified as having poor conservation status due to significant environmental degradation, whereas springs in the Ribeirão do Tamanduá watershed were considered partially conserved, despite existing conflicts related to inadequate land use practices and water pollution. The assessment indicated that PANÁgua is a functional tool for diagnosing factors that influence the ecological, structural, and environmental dynamics of springs.
Keywords:
Springs; water resources; PANÁgua; conservation status; management tool
Resumo
As nascentes permitem a manutenção de diversos serviços ambientais, sendo importante conhecer e garantir sua conservação. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi propor uma ferramenta com potencial para a avaliação integrada de nascentes de duas bacias hidrográficas do sudeste brasileiro com condições ambientais e geográficas diferentes. A ferramenta denominada PANÁgua determina o estado de conservação por meio do monitoramento ambiental, revisão de literatura e análise espacial. Os resultados mostraram a potencialidade e versatilidade da ferramenta, gerando resultados consequentes com as características próprias de cada ecossistema. As nascentes do córrego Mineirinho possuem um estado de conservação catalogado como ruim devido à intensa degradação ambiental, enquanto as nascentes do Ribeirão do Tamanduá estão parcialmente conservadas embora existam conflitos pelo uso inadequado do solo e poluição da água. Mediante a avaliação desenvolvida observou-se que o PANÁgua é uma ferramenta funcional para o diagnóstico de fatores que alteram a dinâmica ecológica, estrutural e ambiental das nascentes.
Palavras-chave:
Nascentes; Recursos Hídricos; PANÁgua; Estado de conservação; Ferramenta de gestão
Resumen
Los manantiales permiten el mantenimiento de diversos servicios ecosistémicos, por lo que resulta fundamental conocer y garantizar su conservación. El objetivo de esta investigación fue proponer una herramienta con potencial para la evaluación integrada de manantiales en dos cuencas hidrográficas del sudeste de Brasil con diferentes condiciones ambientales y geográficas. La herramienta denominada PANÁgua determina el estado de conservación mediante monitoreo ambiental, revisión de literatura y análisis espacial. Los resultados evidenciaron la potencialidad y versatilidad de la herramienta, generando resultados coherentes con las características propias de cada ecosistema. Los manantiales del arroyo Mineirinho presentan un estado de conservación clasificado como deficiente debido a la intensa degradación ambiental, mientras que los manantiales del Ribeirão do Tamanduá se encuentran parcialmente conservados, aunque existen conflictos asociados al uso inadecuado del suelo y a la contaminación del agua. A partir de la evaluación realizada se observó que PANÁgua constituye una herramienta funcional para el diagnóstico de factores que alteran la dinámica ecológica, estructural y ambiental de los manantiales.
Palabras-clave:
Nacederos; Recursos hídricos; PANÁgua; Estado de conservación; Herramienta de gestión
Introduction
Water is essential for life on Earth, as it directly supports human health and well-being while sustaining ecosystems and biodiversity, making it one of the most critical natural resources (Carpenter; Bhawsar; Bhat, 2018). Despite being a renewable resource due to the intrinsic characteristics of the hydrological cycle, water has been used unsustainably, leading to water stress and pollution in several regions worldwide (Velho, 1995; Balbinot et al., 2008).
According to the Brazilian National Water Agency (2020), the degradation of surface water bodies has been occurring with varying intensities and temporal patterns across many Brazilian cities. The impacts of this degradation also produce economic consequences, including increased costs for water and wastewater treatment; rising healthcare expenditures associated with hospitalizations and medication for infections and intoxications caused by poor water quality; reduced productivity in industrial sectors, particularly agriculture and livestock; and the loss of tourism, cultural, and landscape values, among others. Thus, water pollution extends beyond an environmental issue and represents a complex socio-environmental challenge that requires integrated solutions addressing multiple societal dimensions (Terra et al., 2025).
The protection and conservation of water sources constitute the foundation of water management, promoting rational use and maintaining water quality. In this context, headwater springs play a significant role in sustaining ecosystem services, highlighting the need to ensure their preservation for future generations (Calheiros; Tabai; Bosquilia, 2004).
Given the increasing impacts affecting springs, effective water resources management has become essential. Understanding local and regional socio-environmental dynamics associated with water resources is therefore necessary, particularly through watershed-based studies, since watersheds represent the most appropriate physiographic unit for environmental planning (Teodoro et al., 2007).
This research adopted the Integrated Assessment and Monitoring Protocol for Headwater Springs (PANÁgua), proposed by Rosso-Pinto (2019). PANÁgua is designed to support decision-making processes in water resources management and watershed planning, focusing on determining the conservation status of springs through weighted hierarchical scoring based on field assessments, physicochemical and microbiological measurements, spatial analysis, and the implementation of conservation actions documented in management instruments and relevant literature.
Accordingly, this study aimed to conduct an integrated assessment of selected springs in the Ribeirão do Tamanduá and Córrego Mineirinho watersheds using PANÁgua, with the objective of comparing the impacts observed in both basins and examining their relationship with surrounding land-use and land-cover conditions.
Materials and Methods
The application of PANÁgua (Rosso-Pinto, 2019) follows a three-stage framework based on a hierarchical structure composed of multiple categories and parameters through which relevant information is collected to determine the conservation status of springs. In this study, the tool was applied to assess selected springs located within the Ribeirão do Tamanduá and Córrego Mineirinho watersheds.
Ribeirão do Tamanduá is one of the main tributaries of the Jacaré-Pepira River, which belongs to the Tietê-Jacaré Water Resources Management Unit (UGRHI 13). This microwatershed lies partially within the boundaries of the Corumbataí Environmental Protection Area, in the state of São Paulo, covering an area of approximately 5.09 km² (Rodrigues et al., 2011), and is characterized by tourism activities as well as significant agricultural and livestock production. According to the characterization developed by Santos, Trevisan, and Moschini (2018), the springs of the Ribeirão do Tamanduá watershed are located within the Serra Geral and Bauru geological formations, in regions dominated by Oxisols with slope gradients ranging from 9% to 27%. For this study, selected springs located in the headwater region of this watershed were evaluated (Figure 1).
The Mineirinho microwatershed is in the central-western region of the city of São Carlos (SP), within the Monjolinho River basin, partially occupying the urban perimeter of the municipality. The residential pattern along the Mineirinho watershed varies throughout its watercourse: in the upstream areas, low-income housing predominates, characterized by simple dwellings with precarious and poorly connected infrastructure; downstream, high-standard residential condominiums are present, featuring consolidated infrastructure and integration with a road network capable of supporting urban densification (Tarpani and Brandão, 2009). This socio-spatial configuration directly influences the environmental dynamics of the microwatershed, as upstream areas-generally more sensitive from a hydrological perspective-exhibit greater vulnerability to environmental degradation processes. Inadequate urban infrastructure, combined with irregular land occupation, tends to intensify problems such as the discharge of untreated effluents, soil erosion, streambed siltation, and increased diffuse pollutant loads.
The physical characterization indicates that slope gradients in the Córrego Mineirinho microwatershed range from 0% to 12% (Figure 2). Similarly, the predominant geological formation corresponds to the Bauru Group, and the dominant soils are Red-Yellow Oxisols. The geology of the Bauru Group, composed mainly of sandstones, provides highly porous geological materials that, under natural conditions, favor water infiltration and groundwater recharge. However, intense urbanization has compromised this potential, as the replacement of natural surfaces with impermeable pavements significantly reduces infiltration rates and increases concentrated surface runoff (Trevisan, 2018).
Determination of the Conservation Status of Springs
The first stage of PANÁgua implementation consisted of determining parameters related to the following categories: water quality monitoring; spring disturbances; soil physical integrity; and land-use and land-cover characteristics in the surrounding area, which required field visits. Subsequently, the second stage identified and evaluated spring recovery and conservation actions at the watershed scale; and the third stage employed Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to assess land-use and land-cover characteristics in the surroundings of the studied springs.
The parameters included in PANÁgua were evaluated by environmental professionals using an ordinal scale adapted from Likert (1932) to define the scoring system. Finally, the conservation status was calculated through the weighted aggregation of parameter scores, considering the relevance weights established in the master’s dissertation of the lead author (Rosso-Pinto, 2019).
Field-based environmental assessment (Stage 1)
During the field visits to the springs, their characteristics were observed, and the parameters were analyzed and evaluated according to the protocol guidelines. For the category “qualitative monitoring of spring water,” the required physicochemical parameters were measured using a Horiba U-10 multiparameter meter, and samples for Escherichia coli and total coliform counts were collected using the COLIPAPER® microbiological kit method.
After completing Stage 1 of PANÁgua, the responses of the technical team members (composed of three environmental professionals) were shared to compare assessments and achieve convergence of results without compromising the individual autonomy of the assigned scores. These scores were then weighted using the PANÁgua relevance factors (Rosso-Pinto, 2019), resulting in the conservation status for Stage 1, expressed according to the Likert scale. The participation of three environmental professionals in the technical team was essential to reduce potential subjectivity in the evaluation process.
Assessment of implemented conservation and restoration actions (Stage 2)
Conservation and restoration actions implemented within the study area were assessed through a literature review. The sources consulted included: the National Water Resources Information System (SNIRH); the Integrated Water Resources Management System of the State of São Paulo (SigRH); the Brazilian National Water Agency (ANA); the Brazilian Water Resources Association (ABRHidro); the Brazilian Groundwater Association (ABAS); the Ministry of the Environment (MMA); the municipal governments of Itirapina, Brotas, and São Carlos; and Google Scholar for scientific information searches (articles, reports, dissertations, and theses). Parameters for which baseline information was not identified in the literature review were excluded from the final scoring of this category, thereby avoiding underestimation of the tool’s results.
Environmental assessment using GIS (Stage 3)
The evaluation of parameters established in Stage 3 of PANÁgua was conducted through the identification and mapping of land-use and land-cover classes surrounding each evaluated spring, using ArcGIS 10.5® software.
To delimit the surrounding area, a 1-km buffer was created around each spring, following the approach proposed by Fumagalli et al. (2017). Land-use and land-cover mapping was based on orbital imagery from the RapidEye Satellite Constellation, using the REIS (RapidEye Earth Imaging System) sensor, widely recognized in geoprocessing applications for its capacity to acquire high-resolution spatial and spectral data over large areas. The images used were multispectral and orthorectified, with a spatial resolution of 5.0 meters at a mapping scale of 1:15,000. These images were obtained through the Planet Team Education and Research Program data platform (2017).
Raster image processing was performed using the Mean Shift segmentation and classification tool. Samples were collected for each land-use and land-cover class identified around the springs, and these samples were processed using the Maximum Likelihood Classification tool to produce a raster-format land-use map, which was subsequently converted to shapefile format for area calculation of each class.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 summarizes the total scores established for each spring, according to the PANÁgua application stages and the weights used in the weighting process.
Ribeirão do Tamanduá Watershed
To define the scores for the qualitative monitoring category of spring water, data obtained during field measurements of physicochemical and microbiological parameters were used, including the measurement of spring water discharge whenever possible. It should be clarified that discharge has no score within PANÁgua, as the tool developers considered that the amount of water emerging from a spring fluctuates according to climatic seasonality, and its presence at a given location does not necessarily indicate an adequate conservation status. The codes assigned to the springs allow their identification on the map presented in Figure 1.
The NTam_1 spring was classified as “good”, according to the Likert scale adopted in this research, indicating that its current environmental conditions allow the spring to function as an environmental system and to provide ecosystem services such as water provisioning and biodiversity conservation. The category “interferences affecting the spring” was the only one rated above 4, with evidence of livestock presence (mainly cattle, horses, and chickens), including footprints and trampled vegetation, as well as indications of stormwater runoff, such as surface wash marks on the soil.
Water quality showed low microbiological contamination, with a concentration of Total Coliforms of 400 CFU/100 mL. Likewise, electrical conductivity reached 1700 µS/cm which, although not representing a risk to human or animal consumption, indicates the presence of dissolved salts and solids (Pal et al., 2015). In addition, intermediate erosion processes and sediment deposition were identified along the downstream channel slopes.
When analyzing land use and land cover characteristics in the surrounding area, it is inferred that the observed impacts are related to agricultural crops and livestock activities within the interface zone of the spring. Microbiological contamination may result from water contact with animal feces, while elevated conductivity values may be associated with high nitrate and phosphate concentrations derived from agricultural activities. These contamination processes are further intensified by stormwater runoff toward the spring. The observed erosion and siltation are also consequences of agricultural practices, as the use of machinery affects soil physical integrity and gradually replaces natural vegetation.
The NTam_2 spring also received a “good” classification. Among the seven evaluated springs within the Ribeirão do Tamanduá watershed, this spring was considered the most conserved, obtaining a field assessment score of 3.71. Its main distinguishing feature was the absence of Total Coliforms and the lack of anthropogenic interferences. During field inspection, water emergence occurred diffusely, spreading across vegetated areas and forming small ponds. However, the large volume of water combined with terrain slope generated continuous flow, resulting in a downstream channel. Although located in an area dominated by agricultural and livestock activities, natural vegetation within the Permanent Preservation Area (APP) showed low density and therefore did not provide adequate protection for the spring.
The NTam_3 spring also achieved a “good” classification, with a score of 3.67. In this case, Total Coliform concentration reached 650 CFU/100 mL, indicating microbiological contamination. A slight presence of foam was observed in the water, likely of organic origin, considering surrounding land use. However, low electrical conductivity (300 µS/cm) suggests the absence of significant dissolved salts or solids.
Regarding anthropogenic interferences, evidence of livestock access was identified within both the APP and the interface area, although no erosion processes were observed. Eucalyptus silviculture was identified in the interface area, which may lower groundwater levels and explain the reduced discharge observed at this spring compared to others (Trick & Custodio, 2004). According to Moura and Zaidan (2018), eucalyptus plantations require high water and nutrient uptake due to their large biomass, potentially affecting groundwater storage, especially in areas with shallow water tables.
The NTam_4 spring was also classified as “good”, although it presented the highest Total Coliform concentration among the evaluated springs (3920 CFU/100 mL). Impacts associated with dominant land use and land cover classes (agriculture and livestock) were observed, including erosion, siltation, and soil compaction. Natural vegetation within the APP was considered sparse, and the interface area had been completely replaced by pasture for cattle grazing. Nevertheless, a positive aspect of this spring was the presence of a well-maintained fence providing protection.
The NTam_5 spring received a “good” classification. No microbiological contamination was detected; however, electrical conductivity reached 1733 µS/cm, indicating the presence of dissolved salts and solids. All parameters within the “interferences affecting the spring” category received a score of 5, indicating no direct impacts. Soil physical integrity was partially altered, with erosion and siltation observed along the downstream channel margins, as well as signs of soil compaction within the interface area. As discussed for NTam_3, eucalyptus silviculture may reduce groundwater availability and potentially decrease or interrupt spring discharge.
The NTam_6 spring was classified as “poor”. Among the evaluated springs, this one presented condition indicating severe environmental degradation. The Spring had been dammed, forming a lagoon that negatively affected physicochemical and microbiological water properties, with Total Coliform concentrations of 560 CFU/100 mL and turbidity of 43 NTU. Electrical conductivity reached 3100 µS/cm, indicating high levels of dissolved salts and solids.
The main interference identified was water impoundment, which completely altered the hydrological flow and ecological function of the spring. This damming was likely carried out for irrigation purposes, as sugarcane agriculture dominates the surrounding area. Reduced water circulation combined with nutrient inputs (nitrates and phosphates) from agricultural runoff led to intermediate-level eutrophication, even without direct chemical measurements of nutrient concentrations, as visual evidence indicated their presence (Akinnawo, 2023). Additional consequences included displacement of the water emergence point downstream due to blockage of the natural drainage channel.
Within the APP, gullies, ravines, and large erosion features were observed, resulting from the synergistic effects of stormwater runoff, absence of vegetation, and soil disturbance caused by sugarcane cultivation. Agricultural machinery uses and dirt road construction contributed to severe soil compaction within both the APP and interface area. Land use in the surrounding area is dominated by sugarcane cultivation, with eucalyptus plantations also present in the interface zone. Natural vegetation was absent, and the lagoon was unprotected and surrounded by Brachiaria grass. The presence of common and hazardous solid waste was also observed, along with evidence of burning practices, intensifying environmental degradation.
The NTam_7 spring was classified as “poor”, despite qualitative water monitoring indicating good conditions. Anthropogenic interferences were critical, including stormwater runoff and contaminated effluents from agricultural inputs flowing toward the spring. Due to heavy rainfall prior to fieldwork, the water emergence point was located upstream of the APP in a deforested area within a sugarcane field during the off-season (fallow period).
During field inspection, intense erosion processes, siltation, and severe soil compaction were identified around the spring, consistent with land use dominated by sugarcane cultivation. Natural vegetation was absent in both the APP and interface areas, and improper disposal of common and hazardous solid waste, including agricultural packaging, was observed.
Mineirinho Stream Watershed
Spring NMin_1 (see Figure 2) is located next to a public square and received a “poor” classification according to the Likert scale. The high concentration of Total Coliforms (5120 CFU/100 mL) indicates not only strong microbiological contamination of the water at its source but also a potential public health risk. Likewise, the electrical conductivity reached a very high value of 9300 µS/cm, indicating physicochemical contamination.
Among the interferences affecting this spring, the presence and discharge of sewage and stormwater constitute the most severe impacts. These parameters were evaluated based on watercolor observation, detection of the characteristic sewage odor, and identification of apparently contaminated effluent runoff. In addition, the water flow has been altered by a pipe installed to facilitate the emergence of water from the spring. However, the color and odor of the water emerging from this pipe suggest possible illegal cross-connections for sewage discharge. Livestock animals such as chickens, ducks, pigs, and horses were also observed within the interface area of the spring.
Soil physical integrity was found to be in critical condition due to intense erosion processes observed both within the Permanent Preservation Area (APP) and the interface zone, as well as the presence of a large gully where the spring is located, representing a safety and health risk for pedestrians. Advanced soil compaction was also identified as a consequence of dense urbanization around the spring and the accumulation of large amounts of sediment and mud deposited in the downstream channel.
Although fencing structures and informational signs indicating the existence of the APP were present, natural vegetation density was low. Urban land use and occupation in the surrounding area indicate a high degree of anthropization, with excessive and improper disposal of both common and hazardous solid waste.
The NMin_2 spring was also classified as “poor”, presenting the most critical condition among the evaluated springs in the Mineirinho Stream watershed. Water quality was affected by microbiological contamination, with Total Coliform concentrations reaching a significantly high value of 11,040 CFU/100 mL. Similarly, electrical conductivity reached 21,300 µS/cm. The most severe interferences identified were the continuous discharge of sewage or contaminated effluents and stormwater runoff, evaluated based on watercolor and odor, both indicative of sewage presence. A pipe discharging apparently contaminated liquid into the downstream channel was also observed.
The hydrological flow of this spring has been altered by anthropogenic intervention due to modifications in the downstream channel, resulting from severe bank erosion. Within the interface area, livestock presence and severe erosion processes were identified. Regarding soil physical integrity, the spring was found to be almost completely buried due to siltation, with evidence of advanced soil compaction caused by urbanization and using the spring area for construction waste disposal and other dumping practices.
Natural vegetation was entirely absent within both the APP and the interface area, with dense urbanization predominating and indicating strong anthropization. Earth movement using tools and/or machinery was also identified in the surrounding area.
Results of the identification of spring conservation and restoration actions
According to the specific criteria defined for this stage of PANÁgua, the results indicated the existence of documents establishing conservation and restoration actions for springs within the studied watersheds, including:
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Establishment and weighting of criteria to define priority areas for forest restoration projects, considering spring areas included in the Forest Restoration Master Plan;
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Development of a database for each sub-basin of UGRHI 13 (Tietê-Jacaré Water Resources Management Unit, São Paulo State, where the studied watersheds are located), including information such as APP areas of rivers and springs and the Remaining Vegetation Index of spring APPs (Forest Restoration Master Plan);
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Mapping for identification and characterization of springs within the watershed (to support the Forest Restoration Master Plan);
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Diagnosis of spring APPs within UGRHI 13 (UGRHI 13 Basin Plan);
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Development of executive projects for the restoration of springs and riparian forests (strategies and targets proposed in the UGRHI 13 Basin Plan);
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Implementation of environmental awareness activities on the importance of conservation and sustainable use of water resources, including springs (UGRHI 13 Basin Plan).
The identification of these actions and the existence of management instruments made it possible to establish that both the Ribeirão do Tamanduá watershed and the Mineirinho Stream watershed have implemented some spring conservation initiatives, obtaining an intermediate score of 3 in all cases (see Table 1).
Assessment of environmental conditions using Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
The maps in Figure 3 present the spatial distribution of land use and land cover classes surrounding the springs in both watersheds, considering a 1 km radius buffer as the analysis area. A clear predominance of agricultural crops (sugarcane) can be observed around all springs, followed by silviculture and natural vegetation.
The results of this stage allowed the conclusion that the radius of natural vegetation in most springs was below the minimum value established by the Brazilian Forest Code (50 meters), with some springs showing an absence of vegetation. The Vegetation Fragment Quantity Index (IQF) indicated that NTam_4 was the only spring exceeding 20% natural vegetation cover.
Finally, the degree of anthropization related to land use and land cover was determined based on the hemeroby scale (BELEM & NUCCI, 2011). Springs dominated by agricultural crops were classified as mesohemerobiotic and assigned a score of 3. In contrast, springs characterized by agricultural areas during off-season periods (exposed soil) were classified as euhemerobiotic, receiving a score of 2.
Figure 4 presents the land use and land cover classes for the springs in the Mineirinho Stream watershed, indicating the predominance of the “dense urban area” class, as a large portion of the watershed lies within the urban boundary of the municipality of São Carlos.
Regarding the APP buffer radius, none of the springs reached the 50-meter minimum established by the Brazilian Forest Code. In turn, the degree of anthropization determined through the hemeroby scale was defined by the predominance of the “dense urban area” class in both springs, classifying them as meta-hemerobiotic and assigning a score of 1.
Conservation status results of the evaluated springs
The integrated results of all assessment stages, weighted according to Table 1, indicated that springs NTam_6 and NTam_7 (Ribeirão do Tamanduá watershed) exhibit critical environmental conditions, receiving a poor conservation status classification. The diagnostic process revealed the occurrence of physicochemical and microbiological contamination, multiple anthropogenic interferences, and severe degradation of soil structural integrity and natural vegetation cover. These pressures directly disrupt the ecological functioning of the springs and compromise hydrological regulation processes within the watershed. The identified impacts are primarily associated with agricultural expansion and silviculture activities occurring within both the APP buffer zones and interface areas. Luiz (2019), in a study conducted in the Analândia region approximately 20 km from Itirapina, identified at least eight springs as priority sites for restoration due to anthropogenic disturbances affecting their conservation status, highlighting that even where APPs remain legally established, restoration of the contributing areas is still required. Similarly, Silva De Abreu, Braz-Mesquita, and Murillo-Bermudez (2021) reported that 47.7% of springs in the same region were degraded and 33.3% disturbed, reinforcing the need for targeted restoration investments and supporting the findings of the present study.
Land use and land cover mapping around these springs demonstrated the predominance of sugarcane cultivation, complementing field observations and strengthening the inference that the detected impacts are closely linked to agricultural intensification. Considering the limited implementation of conservation and restoration measures identified in this research, greater institutional engagement from environmental authorities is required, as ongoing degradation processes may reduce water availability and generate risks to ecosystem services and public health.
For the urban springs within the Mineirinho Stream watershed, conservation status was classified as poor in both cases. Certain impacts were observed with greater intensity compared to the Ribeirão do Tamanduá watershed, including improper disposal of common and hazardous solid waste, burning practices, and the direct discharge of sewage and stormwater into the springs. These pressures reflect typical dynamics of urban watersheds, where land-use intensification and unsustainable urban expansion alter the physical-biotic environment and increase ecological vulnerability. Land use and land cover analysis confirmed the predominance of the dense urban area class; however, agricultural activities identified near spring NMin_1 indicate the coexistence of multiple land-use pressures. The synergistic interaction between urban and agricultural drivers highlights the importance of continuous monitoring programs to prevent the amplification of environmental impacts. It is important to note that PANÁgua was applied at a single temporal snapshot; therefore, future research should incorporate seasonal comparative analyses between wet and dry periods to better capture climatic variability effects on conservation status.
The evaluation of springs within both the Tamanduá and Mineirinho watersheds demonstrated a strong coupling between surrounding land use patterns and conservation status, reinforcing that increasing anthropogenic pressure gradients correspond to higher levels of environmental degradation at the watershed scale. Although conceptually intuitive, this relationship underscores the systemic dependence of watershed hydrological balance on the ecological integrity of headwater springs.
PANÁgua proved effective in typifying environmental impacts and distinguishing conservation status differences between rural and urban contexts, demonstrating methodological robustness and high transferability across environmental and geographic settings. In the Ribeirão do Tamanduá watershed, livestock access was associated with microbiological contamination and soil structural degradation, while APP vegetation suppression due to agricultural expansion intensified erosion, siltation, and water quality deterioration. Silviculture practices were also observed to alter groundwater dynamics and spring discharge regimes through local water table drawdown (Carvalho Neto, 2021). In contrast, springs within the Mineirinho watershed exhibited critically degraded conditions, characterized by severe soil alteration, contamination from illegal sewage connections, inadequate solid waste disposal, complete removal of riparian vegetation, and sanitary conditions that already represent potential risks to human health (Taloor, 2020). These findings highlight the potential of PANÁgua as an innovative and integrative tool for watershed management, environmental planning, and decision-making processes.
Conclusions
The environmental conditions of the springs studied in the Tamanduá Stream and Mineirinho Stream watersheds were assessed using the Integrated Protocol for Assessment and Monitoring of Watercourse Springs (PANÁgua), which proved to be a comprehensive, useful, and efficient tool for this process. Its application to springs with different environmental, geographic, and land use characteristics highlights the versatility of the methodology.
PANÁgua integrates parameters and indicators that enable the evaluation of multiple aspects and environmental conditions of springs and, through weighted assessments, proposes a hierarchical analysis approach based on the relative importance assigned to different parameters. Five springs within the Ribeirão do Tamanduá watershed were classified as “good”, as they presented moderate impacts related to microbiological and physicochemical water quality, mild erosion and soil compaction processes, and low density of natural vegetation cover. These impacts were mainly associated with agricultural, livestock, and silvicultural activities developed around the springs. In contrast, the last two springs exhibited critical environmental conditions and were classified as “poor” in terms of conservation status. The identified environmental impacts were primarily related to sugarcane cultivation and were considered intensive, including strong microbiological and physicochemical water contamination, severe alterations to hydrological flow, and significant degradation of soil physical integrity, evidenced by the presence of gullies, rills, siltation, and earth movement using agricultural machinery and tools. Furthermore, these springs were found to be completely unprotected, with natural vegetation considered absent.
Urban springs within the Mineirinho Stream watershed, located in the urban area of the municipality of São Carlos (SP), were also assessed, demonstrating the versatility and responsiveness of PANÁgua in evaluating springs under distinct environmental and geographic contexts. The adequate implementation of the protocol was further evidenced during field visits, as observed land use and land cover conditions were consistent with PANÁgua assessment results, indicating that the tool effectively fulfilled its intended purpose. Therefore, PANÁgua may be applied as a reliable framework for evaluating springs in other watersheds across the country. The information generated in this study provides relevant support for environmental agencies in the design and implementation of conservation actions, programs, projects, and public policies aimed at spring protection.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) for funding this research.
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All data supporting the results of this study are presented within the article itself
Source: The authors, 2025.
Source: The authors, 2025.
Source: The authors, 2025.
Source: The authors, 2025.