Temporal dynamics of zoonotic disease reports in wild animals over a decade (2014-2024)ABSTRACT
Zoonotic disease surveillance in wildlife is essential for both public and animal health, as case reports enable the identification of unusual clinical events and emerging pathogens. This study evaluated case reports and case series on zoonotic infections in wild animals published between 2014 and 2024 in the PubMed, SciELO, DOAJ, and ScienceDirect databases. A total of 34 articles were included, and their data were organized according to temporal, geographic, taxonomic and etiological distribution. Temporal variation was analyzed using a paired t-test, comparing the pre- and post-COVID-19 periods. A statistically significant difference was observed between the periods (p = 0.0491), with an increase in the annual mean number of publications after 2020. The highest frequencies were recorded in 2024 (25%) and 2021 (15.63%). The Americas accounted for 38% of the reports. Mammals represented 88% of the described cases, and bacterial zoonoses were the most frequent (38%), followed by parasitic infections (35%). These findings highlight temporal shifts in reporting patterns and reinforce the importance of systematic zoonotic disease surveillance in wildlife within the One Health framework.
Keywords:
Emerging pathogens; Epidemiological surveillance; Geographic distribution; Spillover; Zoonotic infection
RESUMO
A vigilância de zoonoses em fauna silvestre é fundamental para a saúde pública e animal, uma vez que relatos de caso permitem a identificação de eventos clínicos incomuns e agentes emergentes. Este estudo avaliou relatos de caso e séries de casos sobre infecções zoonóticas em animais silvestres, publicados entre 2014 e 2024, nas bases PubMed, SciELO, DOAJ e ScienceDirect. Foram incluídos 34 artigos, cujas informações foram organizadas quanto à distribuição temporal, geográfica, taxonômica e etiológica. A variação temporal foi analisada por meio de teste t pareado, comparando os períodos pré e pós-COVID-19. Observou-se diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os períodos (P=0,0491), com aumento da média anual de publicações após 2020. As maiores frequências ocorreram em 2024 (25%) e 2021 (15,63%). O continente americano concentrou 38% dos relatos. Mamíferos representaram 88% dos casos descritos, e as zoonoses bacterianas foram mais frequentes (38%), seguidas pelas parasitárias (35%). Os achados evidenciam mudanças temporais no padrão de relatos e reforçam a importância do monitoramento sistematizado de zoonoses em fauna silvestre no contexto da Saúde Única.
Palavras-chave:
patógenos emergentes; vigilância epidemiológica; distribuição geográfica; spillover; infecção zoonótica
INTRODUCTION
The scientific literature in veterinary medicine is continuously enriched by various study designs, among which case reports stand out as fundamental tools for the advancement of knowledge (Santifort et al., 2025). Although they do not provide the same level of evidence as randomized clinical trials or high-complexity systematic reviews, these reports play a decisive role in describing rare or previously unreported clinical events, identifying atypical disease presentations, and documenting novel diagnostic or therapeutic approaches (Sánchez et al., 2017). In the context of wildlife health and public health, case reports also serve as important sentinel signals, providing detailed and contextual information that often represents the earliest evidence of emerging pathologies (Baker and Gray, 2009).
Wildlife constitutes a natural reservoir of high epidemiological relevance, as it harbors a wide diversity of infectious agents maintained through long-term coevolutionary processes, often in subclinical infections that favor environmental persistence (González-Barrio et al., 2022; Chai et al., 2023). The ecological complexity of these systems, combined with host and vector diversity, sustains distinct transmission cycles and confers a central role to wildlife in the dynamics of zoonotic and emerging pathogens. Consequently, the detection of zoonoses in this group extends beyond species conservation and is directly integrated into strategies for surveillance and prevention of risks to public and animal health (Baker and Gray, 2009; Epp and Waldner, 2012). From this perspective, systematic monitoring and accurate diagnosis of diseases in wildlife populations become essential for outbreak anticipation and for mitigating spillover events to domestic animals and human populations. As an initial element of this process, the identification and documentation of isolated cases-often reported as case reports-constitute the foundation for building a more comprehensive epidemiological framework.
The 2014-2024 timeframe analyzed in this review is particularly relevant, as it encompasses the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, an event that reinforced the need for rigorous zoonotic disease surveillance and highlighted the importance of wildlife as a reservoir of pathogens with spillover potential to human populations. In this context, the collection and systematization of data derived from case reports published in wildlife becomes strategic tools for post-pandemic surveillance. An integrated analysis of these reports over the past decade allows not only the identification of temporal and geographic patterns, as well as the species and pathogens most frequently involved, but also a better understanding of shifts in research focus and diagnostic methodologies employed (Küker et al., 2018). The impact of this systematized data is substantial, providing a solid evidence base for the planning of more effective actions, the prioritization of resources in higher-risk areas, and the development of integrated health and conservation policies aligned with the One Health concept.
This study aimed to investigate temporal trends and the epidemiological distribution of zoonotic infections affecting wildlife from 2014 to 2024, based on published case reports retrieved through structured database searches, with comparison between pre- and post-COVID-19 periods.
ETHICAL ASPECTS
The present study was based exclusively on previously published data and did not involve experimental procedures or the use of animals; therefore, submission to the Ethics Committee on Animal Use was not required.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Published case reports from January 1, 2014, to December 31, 2024, were retrieved through structured bibliographic searches performed in the PubMed, SciELO, DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals) and ScienceDirect databases. Database selection was based on their scientific coverage, regional representation and multidisciplinary relevance to zoonoses and wildlife research. PubMed was included as the main international health sciences database, containing a large volume of peer-reviewed biomedical literature, ensuring broad coverage of reports involving infectious diseases. SciELO was selected for its collection of journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Portugal and Spain, allowing the inclusion of regionally relevant studies, particularly those addressing Neotropical wildlife. DOAJ was utilized for its exclusive compilation of open-access journals, facilitating the retrieval of case reports published in less restricted outlets and potentially more sensitive to documenting rare events. Finally, ScienceDirect was incorporated due to its extensive multidisciplinary repository, covering biological and environmental sciences as well as veterinary medicine, contributing to the identification of case reports published across different fields related to zoonoses and wildlife.
In PubMed, the search strategy “zoonotic disease” AND “wild animals” AND “case report” was applied, limited to the defined period, resulting in 33 identified articles, of which 26 met the established methodological criteria. In SciELO, the search using equivalent descriptors retrieved 1 study, while in DOAJ 3 articles were identified, of which 2 were considered eligible for analysis. In ScienceDirect, the descriptor “zoonotic disease” OR “zoonosis” AND “wild animals” OR “wildlife” AND “case report” was used, yielding 32 results, of which 5 were included, as the others did not meet the predefined criteria.
Searches were conducted in three languages - English, Portuguese and Spanish - to maximize the sensitivity of the study identification strategy and reduce the risk of language bias.
After removing duplicates, studies were screened by titles and abstracts, followed by full-text reading of potentially eligible articles. Case reports or case series describing infections caused by recognized zoonotic agents in wildlife were included, regardless of whether the infection source was confirmed, suspected or undetermined. Studies involving humans, domestic or production animals, as well as reviews, editorials, experimental studies or cases in which the etiologic agent was not zoonotic were excluded.
From each included study, information was extracted on the etiologic agent, affected species, epidemiological context, possible transmission routes, location, and clinical outcomes. Considering the heterogeneity of species, agents and settings, a narrative and descriptive synthesis was conducted without performing a meta-analysis. To assess temporal differences in the frequency of case reports before (2014-2019) and after (2020-2024) the COVID-19 pandemic, a paired t-test was applied using GraphPad Prism software.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of 69 studies were identified, of which 34 articles were eligible for this study, published between 2014 and 2024, fully meeting the established methodological criteria (Table 1). The temporal distribution of reports showed variation over the analyzed decade, with the highest number of publications in 2024, totaling eight articles (25%). This was followed by 2021, with 5 studies (15.63%), and 2022 with 4 studies (12.50%). The years 2015, 2019 and 2020 each accounted for three articles (9.38%). In 2017 and 2023, 2 reports were recorded each (6.25%), while 2016 and 2018 had only one study each (3%). No publications were identified for 2014 (Fig. 1).
To assess whether there was a difference in the mean number of case reports published before and after the COVID-19 pandemic, the data were stratified into two periods: pre-pandemic (2014-2019) and post-pandemic (2020-2024). A paired t-test was then applied to compare the means of two related conditions when observations are directly matched between periods. The test indicated a statistically significant difference between the analyzed periods (p=0.0491; 95% CI). The annual mean number of reports after 2020 was higher than that observed in the pre-pandemic period.
This temporal distribution indicates a progressive increase in scientific interest in reporting zoonotic diseases in wildlife, particularly from 2020 onwards. This phenomenon can be attributed to several converging factors: heightened global attention to zoonoses following the COVID-19 pandemic, strengthened epidemiological surveillance, intensified studies on pathogen ecology and the growing emphasis on the human-wildlife interface (Chai et al., 2023; Wikel, 2024). Consequently, researchers may have devoted greater effort to documenting and publishing individual cases of epidemiological relevance, contributing to the recent increase in reports.
Additionally, the post-pandemic period coincided with a trend toward the expansion and decentralization of diagnostic capacities, with methods such as PCR and next-generation sequencing becoming increasingly available in regional laboratories (Papaneri et al., 2025). This context may have contributed to greater sensitivity for detecting emerging pathogens and enabled etiological confirmation of infections that might previously have been underdiagnosed, thereby facilitating the publication of case reports.
Graph representing the collected data, showing a trend of increase in the post-pandemic period over the timeframe analyzed.
The expansion of open-access journals in recent years may also have facilitated the dissemination of rare cases, particularly in regions with high biodiversity and complex ecosystems, where interactions between humans, wildlife and pathogens are more intense (Momeni et al., 2021; Papaneri et al., 2025). In contrast, years with a lower volume of publications, notably the pre-pandemic period, may reflect funding constraints in certain regional contexts, limitations in wildlife surveillance systems or prioritization of experimental and ecological studies over formal case reporting. Additionally, temporal publication patterns may be influenced by variations in research effort, availability of specialized teams and institutional or governmental policies related to wildlife monitoring and environmental health.
Regarding the geographic distribution of the reports, the countries of occurrence were grouped by continent. Among the six continents considered, the Americas predominated with 13 studies (38%). This was followed by Europe with nine studies (26%) and Asia with seven reports (21%). Oceania accounted for three publications (9%), while Africa recorded two studies (6%), representing the lowest proportion in the sample analyzed (Fig. 2).
It should be noted that the study by Kilinc et al. (2024) was classified as part of the Asian continent, as Türkiye is a transcontinental country and the reported occurrence involving Ursus arctos took place in Bingöl Province, which is entirely located in Eastern Anatolia and is geographically and historically part of the Asian territory. Therefore, for the purpose of accurate geographic categorization, this report was included in the Asian group.
The predominance of reports from the Americas can be explained by a combination of ecological, epidemiological, and structural factors that favor both the occurrence and detection of zoonotic diseases in wildlife. In particular, the Neotropical region, corresponding to most of Latin America - with nine publications included in this study - hosts some of the world’s largest biodiversity hotspots, containing high diversity of mammals, birds and other vertebrates, which act as potential reservoirs and amplifiers of zoonotic agents (Winck et al., 2022). Regions with such ecological breadth present greater richness of hosts, vectors and complex biotic interactions, increasing the likelihood of pathogen circulation and emergence (Salvarani et al., 2025). Secondly, the Americas have extensive areas under increasing anthropogenic pressure, including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization. These processes intensify contact among humans, domestic animals and wildlife, creating epidemiological scenarios conducive to spillover and consequently increasing the likelihood of detecting cases relevant for publication (White and Razgour, 2020).
It should also be noted that several countries in the Americas have increasingly invested in integrated zoonotic disease surveillance, aligned with the One Health approach. For example, a Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)/PANAFTOSA workshop held in Brazil included representatives from Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, Uruguay and Cuba, who discussed intersectoral initiatives in public, animal and environmental health (Molina-Flores et al., 2025). In Brazil, the Foz do Iguaçu Zoonosis Control Center implemented integrated surveillance for zoonoses, venomous animal injuries and vector-borne diseases under the One Health framework, resulting in a substantial increase in notifications (Leandro et al., 2021). Furthermore, a recent PAHO/WHO workshop in Brazil on bat surveillance emphasized collaborative action across animal, human and environmental health sectors to detect emerging zoonotic pathogens (Brasil, 2025). This movement has strengthened monitoring systems, technical training, diagnostic networks and reporting protocols involving wildlife, contributing to increased sensitivity in detecting events. Another relevant factor concerns scientific effort and publication capacity. Over the last decade, there has been a significant expansion in the number of open-access journals in the Americas, particularly in Latin America (Rodrigues and Oliveira, 2012), facilitating the dissemination of clinical and epidemiological reports from regional institutions. Consequently, the intensification of scientific production on zoonoses following the COVID-19 pandemic has also influenced the increase in publications addressing the interface between wildlife and pathogens (Chai et al., 2023; Wikel, 2024).
The higher representation of studies from the Americas does not reflect only the number of cases, but rather a combination of high biodiversity, strong ecological pressure, more structured surveillance systems and greater scientific dissemination capacity, factors that converge to a higher volume of published reports during the analyzed period.
Regarding the animals involved in the reports, they were grouped into three main taxonomic categories: mammals, reptiles and birds. A clear predominance of mammals was observed, accounting for 30 records (88%). Reptiles and birds had equivalent representation, with two reports each (6%) (Fig. 3).
Mammals, particularly placental species, exhibit greater physiological, immunological and metabolic similarity to humans, which facilitates pathogen transmission and explains the relatively high number of zoonoses documented in this group. This pattern is exemplified by the study of Jin et al. (2021), which investigated the zoonotic nematode Thelazia callipaeda in four nature reserves in China. In this cycle, the fly Phortica okadai acts as an intermediate vector, allowing the development of infective larvae and their transmission to mammals. At Foping National Nature Reserve, the density of P. okadai increased significantly and new wildlife hosts were identified, including giant panda, wild boar, leopard cat and black bear, with at least one individual from each species infected by T. callipaeda. These findings underscore the importance of mammals as reservoirs of zoonotic agents due to their biological proximity to humans and their susceptibility to emerging vector-borne pathogens.
Recent cases illustrate how the increasing presence of wild mammals in peri-urban and rural environments can amplify the likelihood of detectable zoonotic events. For example, Ghorani et al. (2022) reported rabies in a gray wolf (Canis lupus) observed by the Provincial Department of Environment of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, which had been seen near a local village. Hughes et al. (2024) described Chagas disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi in an American black bear (Ursus americanus) cub found in the Lake Tahoe area, a mountainous and forested region on the border of California and Nevada, with small towns and villages dispersed around the lake. Previous studies have also documented zoonoses in wild boars, whose ability to colonize rural areas, high reproductive rate and difficulty of population control increase contact with humans, domestic animals and vectors, thereby facilitating pathogen transmission (Risco et al., 2015; Rónai et al., 2015; Uni et al., 2015; Franco-Paredes et al., 2017). The adaptation of these animals to anthropized areas acts as an epidemiological risk-amplifying factor, making zoonotic events more detectable and, consequently, more frequently documented. Some reports included in this review are notable for involving aquatic species, highlighting those marine mammals can also serve as hosts for zoonotic agents. Cases were identified in a free-living short-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) (Souter et al., 2021), a Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) found stranded (Smith et al., 2016), a South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens) recorded along the Brazilian coast (Melo et al., 2019) and in other individuals in Argentina (Fiorito et al., 2020) and an Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea), an endangered species from southern Australian waters (Lindsay and Gray, 2021). These cases raise important questions regarding potential exposure to pathways in marine environments.
The presence of zoonoses in aquatic mammals observed in the analyzed reports highlights that these animals are exposed to multiple infection mechanisms, many of which are associated with increasing anthropogenic pressures on coastal environments. The proximity of urban and rural areas to marine ecosystems facilitates the introduction of pathogens through untreated sewage, industrial effluents, surface runoff and organic waste, which can carry pathogens into the aquatic environment (Waltzek et al., 2012). Additionally, marine mammals frequently interact with intermediate prey, contaminated carcasses and environmental vectors, forming transmission cycles that do not rely exclusively on direct contact with humans. In some cases - not identified in the present review but cited in the literature - human contact, whether during fishing, tourism or rehabilitation activities, can also represent a potential exposure pathway (Vigil et al., 2024).
These findings indicate that the marine environment functions as a convergence point for pathogens originating in terrestrial habitats, enabling both the spillover of infectious agents to aquatic species and the risk of spillback, should these pathogens return to human or domestic animal populations through new ecological interactions. Thus, the analyzed reports underscore the need for integrated surveillance across terrestrial and coastal environments, highlighting those aquatic ecosystems do not constitute natural barriers to zoonotic circulation, but rather represent a fundamental component of global epidemiological dynamics.
The low frequency of reports involving reptiles and birds may reflect several factors, including lower diagnostic sensitivity for these groups, reduced risk perception by field teams, challenges in clinical observation and the limited volume of research targeting herpetofauna and avifauna in the context of emerging diseases. Therefore, the scarcity of reports does not necessarily indicate low zoonotic occurrence in these animals, but rather potential gaps in surveillance systems that warrant special attention. For example, Takaki et al. (2022) described the occurrence of the disease known as tongue worm in two imported reptiles: a Wahlberg's velvet gecko (Homopholis wahlbergii) bred in Germany and a green tree python (Morelia viridis) collected from the wild in Indonesia.
In the case of birds, this underdiagnosis is particularly concerning, as some species exhibit high mobility and undertake long-distance migratory routes, functioning as potential natural vectors of pathogens at regional and intercontinental scales. This is exemplified by a report of pneumonia caused by Chlamydophila psittaci associated with exposure to fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) in the Faroe Islands (Fossádal et al., 2018), in which migratory seabirds contributed to the transmission of the agent to humans. The epidemiological relevance of avifauna as a disseminator of infectious agents is further demonstrated by indirect spillover events, such as a recent case documented by Stimmelmayr et al. (2024), which identified natural infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A(H5N1) in a free-living polar bear (Ursus maritimus) in Alaska, showing that viruses originating in birds can reach top mammalian predators even in remote Arctic regions. These examples reinforce that the low representation of birds in publications does not reflect their actual epidemiological role and highlight the need to strengthen surveillance targeting avifauna and the ecological impacts of migratory routes. Regarding the diseases identified, they were classified into the following categories: bacterial, ectoparasitic, fungal, parasitic, protozoan and viral. The results indicated that bacterial zoonoses were the most frequent, with 13 reported cases (40%), followed by parasitic zoonoses - including nematodes, cestodes, and other helminths - with 12 reports (36%). Viral and protozoan zoonoses each accounted for four reports (12%), while ectoparasitic zoonoses were reported only once (3%) (Fig. 4).
Percentage representation of the different pathogenic agents reported in the articles analyzed.
The recurrent presence of these agents in wild animals indicates that they are well-established in their ecological cycles, which may increase the likelihood of clinically perceptible infections. Additionally, bacteria and parasites often produce more obvious clinical signs or systemic conditions, which stimulate diagnostic interventions and, consequently, the formulation of case reports. Another relevant aspect is the availability of widely established diagnostic methods, such as bacterial culture, PCR, parasitological exams, histopathological techniques and serological tests, which facilitate the etiological identification of these agents in wildlife contexts (Lignon et al., 2025). In the case of parasitic diseases, the existence of complex life cycles, involving intermediate hosts and multiple environmental stages, increases the likelihood of exposure to different species and favors interspecies transmission among domestic animals, wildlife and humans (Thompson, 2013; Moraes et al., 2024).
Among the bacterial zoonoses identified, those caused by mycobacteria of the Mycobacterium complex were particularly frequent, representing the most recurrent etiological group in the analyzed reports. In this context, tuberculosis is caused by any of the three mycobacterial pathogens comprising the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, highlighting the epidemiological significance of this group of agents. These pathogens were reported across different vertebrate orders and multiple continents, demonstrating their broad ecological distribution and capacity to infect species with diverse behavioral niches (Szacawa et al., 2025). The earliest record corresponds to a case diagnosed in a free-living Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in India (Chandranaik et al., 2017), followed by reports involving a free-living Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) (Lindsay and Gray, 2021) and South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) stranded in Argentina (Fiorito et al., 2020). Subsequently, new episodes were documented on different continents, including a captive lioness in Ukraine, Eastern Europe (Didkowska et al., 2024), a South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens) in Brazil (Melo et al., 2019), and a black-handed spider monkey (Sapajus nigritus) in Argentina (Lamattina et al., 2024), both in South America. The recurrence of these agents across multiple species and geographic regions evidences their broad ecological distribution and ability to cause chronic infections, often detectable only through necropsy or specific tests, which increases the likelihood of scientific reporting. These findings underscore the importance of surveillance for mycobacterioses in wildlife, given their zoonotic relevance, environmental persistence, and interspecies transmission potential.
Another group of reports that warrants attention involves infections caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, notably a case in an African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) kept as a non-conventional pet in Colombia (Murcia-Cueto et al., 2024), highlighting the health vulnerabilities associated with the trade and domestic keeping of wildlife. This episode fits within a broader context already recognized in the literature: hunting, trafficking, and both legal and illegal wildlife trade constitute important risk factors for the global spread of zoonotic diseases and emerging infections, as they facilitate the transboundary movement of invasive species, pathogens, and parasites (Bezerra-Santos et al., 2021; Rush et al., 2021). These findings underscore the need for public health education for owners, active surveillance, and continuous training of professionals handling wildlife in domestic settings, aiming to mitigate potential zoonotic emergence or re-emergence events.
CONCLUSIONS
Case reports in wildlife represent essential instruments for detecting rare and emerging zoonotic events, offering direct evidence of pathogen circulation at the human-animal interface. The present analysis demonstrated relevant temporal, geographic, and taxonomic patterns in published reports over the last decade, including a significant increase in reporting following the COVID-19 pandemic. The predominance of mammals and bacterial and parasitic agents highlights both the ecological complexity and the multifactorial dynamics underlying zoonotic transmission in wildlife. These findings reinforce the importance of continuous monitoring and integrated data analysis to better understand the occurrence and spread of zoonoses, supporting evidence-based health policies and preventive strategies within the One Health framework across diverse ecological and social contexts.
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The research data are available within the article itself.
