| Habitat loss, deforestation, industrial agriculture, monoculture practices, mining, and other types of land-use changes |
Forest fragmentation, fires and other disruptions of natural habitats of bats resulted in outbreaks of Nipah and Hendra viruses in Australasia |
Field et al. (2001), Chua (2003), Epstein et al. (2006)
|
| Deforestation and road expansion were associated with increased human-biting rate of Anopheles darlingi (primary malaria vector) in the Peruvian Amazon |
Vittor et al. (2006)
|
| Habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss were associated with a higher prevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection among small mammals in an Atlantic Rain Forest landscape of Brazil |
Vaz et al. (2007)
|
| Increasing of land cultivated for sugarcane and high annual mean temperature were associated with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome incidence in the Neotropics |
Prist et al. (2016)
|
| Forest loss triggered increased risk of Kyasanur Forest disease (tick-borne viral hemorrhagic fever) in India |
Walsh et al. (2019a)
|
| Habitat changes of putative wild rodent reservoirs and agriculture-related activities were associated with fatalities from Sabiá virus infection (two in 1990 decade and one in 2020), São Paulo State, Brazil |
Ellwanger & Chies (2017), Malta et al. (2020)
|
| Land-use (e.g., habitat degradation) was associated with changes in parasite richness and prevalence, as well as co-infection patterns, of avian parasites |
Reis et al. (2021)
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| Agricultural and irrigation practices were associated with mosquito proliferation, with increases in Japanese encephalitis cases |
Keiser et al. (2005)
|
| Deforestation for agriculture and cattle pasture was associated with development and dissemination of antibiotic resistance in the Amazonian soil microbiome |
Lemos et al. (2021)
|
| Anthropogenic deforestation associated with the shortage of fruiting due to drought-triggered movement of fruit bats to livestock areas, infecting pigs and then humans with Nipah virus in Malaysia |
Chua et al. (2002), Looi & Chua (2007)
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| Colonial practices in Indigenous areas had a major impact on the health of Indigenous populations, who were exposed to various infectious diseases transmitted by European colonizers and explorers in American and African continents, for example |
Valeggia & Snodgrass (2015), Owers et al. (2017)
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| Mining, logging, illegal land grabbing and other types of land-use changes in Indigenous lands favors the transmission of SARS-CoV-2, malaria, sexually transmitted infections, and other infectious diseases in Amazonian Indigenous populations |
Ellwanger et al. (2020), Vittor et al. (2021)
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| In Brazil, political changes permissible to illegal activities (e.g., logging, mining, fires, weakening of Indigenous leaders) on Indigenous Lands (Terras Indígenas) exposed Indigenous and traditional communities to multiple infectious diseases, including COVID-19 |
Brancalion et al. (2020), Ferrante et al. (2020)
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| Mining and other types of land-use changes were associated with Buruli ulcer (caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans infection) in southwestern Ghana |
Wu et al. (2015)
|
| Agricultural practices exacerbated the risks of many infectious and parasitic diseases (hookworm, malaria, scrub typhus, spotted fever group diseases, schistosomiasis, Trichuris trichuria infection) in Southeast Asia |
Shah et al. (2019)
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| Mining related practices favored emerging infectious disease events in Africa, including Ebola outbreaks, with mining-associated political interests exacerbating such outbreaks |
Wallace et al. (2016), Guégan et al. (2020), Ostergard Jr (2021)
|
| Monoculture and other current food systems practices expose populations to various health issues, including infectious and parasitic diseases (in some cases derived from malnutrition) and multi-resistant microbes at a global scale |
Pradyumna et al. (2019), Everard et al. (2020)
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| Gold mine workers are highly exposed to hantavirus infection, malaria and leishmaniasis in South America |
Rotureau et al. (2006), Terças-Trettel et al. (2019)
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| Agricultural systems bring some bat species (e.g., Desmodus rotundus vampire bat) closer to humans and domestic animals, increasing the risk of bat-borne infections, including rabies outbreaks |
Rosa et al. (2006), Kuzmin et al. (2011)
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| Infectious diseases events were associated with changes in forest cover and oil palm expansion at a global scale |
Morand & Lajaunie (2021)
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| Sugar cane monoculture favors some opportunistic rodents, favoring hantavirus infection in humans |
Figueiredo et al. (2010)
|
| Gold mining-associated activities and settlements favor the spread of infectious diseases (e.g., tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections, rabies, vector-borne diseases) in Australia, Africa, North America, and South America |
Ogola et al. (2002), Eisler (2003)
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| Anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., crop plantation, removal of vegetation cover for cattle raising) lead to simplification of ecosystems (biodiversity loss) and thus favor populations of opportunistic/generalist animal species that can transmit hemorrhagic fever viruses to humans |
Mills (2006)
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| Co-circulation of Araraquara and Juquitiba hantaviruses in rodents was detected in the Brazilian Cerrado biome, with agricultural practices increasing the risk of human hantavirus infection |
Guterres et al. (2018)
|
| Climate change and extreme weather events |
Climatic anomalies (with heavy rainfall and eventually flooding after periods of drought) and increase in air and sea surface temperatures triggered outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever in Africa |
Anyamba et al. (2001), Martin et al. (2008)
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| Fossil fuel-related climate change associated with air pollution favor the occurrence of respiratory infections (e.g, pneumonia, fungal infection, Hantavirus respiratory disease), especially in children |
Mirsaeidi et al. (2016), Brugha & Grigg (2014)
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| An increase in coccidioidomycosis cases in Arizona from 1998 to 2001 was associated with climatic and environmental changes such as wind, mean temperature, dust and rainfall because these factors affect the abundance of fungal arthrospores of Coccidioides species in the air |
Park et al. (2005)
|
| Extreme weather events, in association with de-urbanization, were associated with higher risk of flood-related non-cholera diarrhea in lower hygiene and sanitation groups in a post-flood period in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Rotavirus, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter and Aeromonas were the most common pathogens causing non-cholera diarrhea episodes |
Hashizume et al. (2008)
|
| Climate change was associated with increased human cases of Lyme disease |
Germain et al. (2019)
|
| Fossil fuel-related climate change will change the distribution patterns of zoonotic and vector-borne diseases in the world in a way difficult to accurately predict, but in general favoring the spread of these diseases on a global scale |
Wilkinson et al. (2007), Greer et al. (2008), Dantas-Torres (2015), Wilke et al. (2019b)
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| Climate change and land-use change were associated with an increased risk of acute gastrointestinal diseases |
Brubacher et al. (2020)
|
| Climate abnormalities and melting of permafrost released Bacillus anthracis, the etiological agent of the anthrax disease, infecting reindeer, cattle, and humans |
Timofeev et al. (2019), Maksimović et al. (2017), Stella et al. (2020)
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| Temperature rise alters the distribution, optimal conditions for breeding, growth and survival of Schistosoma-related snails, and such conditions were associated with increased risk of spread and transmission of schistosomiasis |
Kalinda et al. (2017)
|
| Hunting, industrial livestock production, bushmeat practices, and other types of wildlife exploitation |
Bushmeat-related practices triggered the SARS-CoV emergence and outbreak in Asia in 2003 and 2004 |
Tu et al. (2004), Kan et al. (2005), Wang et al. (2006)
|
| Pervasive contact with wildlife (e.g., hunting, bushmeat-related practices), in association with forest fragmentation and loss, triggered Ebola virus disease outbreaks in Africa |
Judson et al. (2016), Olivero et al. (2017), Rulli et al. (2017)
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| Coccidioimycosis cases resulted from armadillo hunting |
Costa et al. (2001), Brillhante et al. (2012), Capellão et al. (2015)
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| Poultry and livestock are sources of multiresistant E. coli isolates with clinical importance in China |
Yassin et al. (2017)
|
| Livestock and poultry are sources of antimicrobial resistance genes of Enterococcus spp. isolates in Lithuania |
Ruzauskas et al. (2009)
|
| An animal-based agriculture river system was associated with antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella sp. in Brazil, with multi-resistance found in 18% of isolates |
Palhares et al. (2014)
|
| Poultry and food products (e.g., retail meat, sushi, ready-to-eat foods) are sources of multi-resistant and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in Europe |
Nemati et al. (2008), Li et al. (2019)
|
| A swine production system was associated with anti-microbial resistance in Campylobacter spp., E. coli and Enterococcus spp. in Australia |
Hart et al. (2004)
|
| Antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes of Streptococcus and Salmonella enterica were detected in isolates obtained from dairy cows in Asian countries |
Chuanchuen et al. (2010), Ding et al. (2016)
|
| Animals raised for consumption (e.g., chickens, pigs, cattle) use the majority (73%) of antimicrobials sold in the world, and these animals are major sources of multiple multi-resistant microbes, especially in developing countries and emerging economies, such as India, China, Brazil and Iran |
Van Boeckel et al. (2019)
|
| Hunting, cleaning and eating of armadillos were associated with the development of Hansen’s disease (Mycobacterium leprae infection) in humans |
Capellão et al. (2015), Van Vliet et al. (2017), da Silva et al. (2018)
|
| Human-promoted elephant-livestock interface increased anthrax transmission risk in India |
Walsh et al. (2019b)
|
| The wildlife exploitation through hunting and trade of threatened wildlife species favors close contact between humans and wildlife, which are contributing factors of spillover events |
Johnson et al. (2020)
|
| Human interaction with animal species (wildlife exploitation, animal trade, livestock industry?) triggered the SARS-CoV-2 emergence and the related COVID-19 pandemic |
Lam et al. (2020), Zhang & Holmes (2020), Zhang et al. (2020), Holmes et al. (2021)
|
| Livestock/agro-pastoral activities were associated with occurrence of zoonotic diseases, such as brucellosis, Q-fever, and Rift Valley fever, affecting both humans and livestock in Ethiopia |
Ibrahim et al. (2021)
|
| Hunting, bushmeat and related activities caused the HIV spillover from wild primates to humans in Africa (around 1920 or before), later (around 1960) spreading around the world as a result of road expansion and globalization, among other social and economic factors |
Hahn et al. (2000), Gray et al. (2009), Faria et al. (2014), Gryseels et al. (2020)
|
| Reassortment of different influenza viruses in swine creates new subtypes of influenza, the causative agent of the Spanish flu (1918) and the swine flu (2009); Influenza reassortment events are facilitated by livestock practices |
Tomley & Shirley (2009), Shi et al. (2014)
|
| Urbanization, de-urbanization, and environmental changes due to infrastructure expansion |
The construction of the Binational Itaipu Reservoir contributed to the proliferation of Anopheles mosquitoes and the increase in Plasmodium vivax malaria cases in the region of the Paraná River (Brazil) |
Falavigna-Guilherme et al. (2005), Leandro et al. (2021)
|
| In Fiji, the presence of Leptospira antibodies was associated with different environmental and socio-demographic variables such as living in villages, lack of access to treated water, working outdoors, living in rural areas, high poverty rates, contact with animals, among other factors |
Lau et al. (2016)
|
| The construction of dams was associated with malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa |
Lautze et al. (2007), Kibret et al. (2019)
|
| Poorly planned urbanization, presence of waste, and precarious sanitation conditions were linked to the proliferation of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and circulation of urban arboviruses (e.g., dengue, chikungunya and zika) |
Almeida et al. (2020)
|
| Poor housing conditions in association with loss of habitat and food sources favor the infestation of human dwellings by triatomine bugs, transmitters of T. cruzi (Chagas disease agent) |
Starr et al. (1991), Schofield et al. (1999), Lima et al. (2012), Crocco et al. (2019)
|
| Human contact with wildlife that resulted from mining and entering caves promoted Marburg virus outbreaks in Africa (infection source linked to bats in caves and mines) |
Bausch et al. (2003), Pawęska et al. (2018), Amman et al. (2020)
|
| Higher risk of schistosomiasis infection due to the construction of dams (water blockage) in Africa |
Sokolow et al. (2017)
|
| Overcrowding, environmental contamination, exposure to disease vectors and lack of public health infrastructure favors the transmission of infectious and parasitic diseases in Indigenous populations in many countries |
Gracey & King (2009)
|
| Marginalized and Indigenous peoples in the United States and Brazil experience disproportionate burdens of COVID-19 (both morbidity and mortality) due to social injustice, lack of vaccines and public health infrastructure, and political weakening of Indigenous leaders |
Santos et al. (2020), Costa et al. (2021), Hiraldo et al. (2021)
|
| Infrastructure problems, water contamination and poverty favor infectious and parasitic diseases in Indigenous populations of the Arctic |
Hotez (2010)
|
Synthesizing the connections between environmental disturbances and zoonotic spillover
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